summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/doc/lispref/files.texi
blob: fc01b1cd1872858fb0342d8f30e381da1470e6cc (plain)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1990-1995, 1998-1999, 2001-2012
@c   Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
@node Files
@chapter Files

  This chapter describes the Emacs Lisp functions and variables to
find, create, view, save, and otherwise work with files and file
directories.  A few other file-related functions are described in
@ref{Buffers}, and those related to backups and auto-saving are
described in @ref{Backups and Auto-Saving}.

  Many of the file functions take one or more arguments that are file
names.  A file name is actually a string.  Most of these functions
expand file name arguments by calling @code{expand-file-name}, so that
@file{~} is handled correctly, as are relative file names (including
@samp{../}).  @xref{File Name Expansion}.

  In addition, certain @dfn{magic} file names are handled specially.
For example, when a remote file name is specified, Emacs accesses the
file over the network via an appropriate protocol (@pxref{Remote
Files,, Remote Files, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}).  This handling is
done at a very low level, so you may assume that all the functions
described in this chapter accept magic file names as file name
arguments, except where noted.  @xref{Magic File Names}, for details.

  When file I/O functions signal Lisp errors, they usually use the
condition @code{file-error} (@pxref{Handling Errors}).  The error
message is in most cases obtained from the operating system, according
to locale @code{system-messages-locale}, and decoded using coding system
@code{locale-coding-system} (@pxref{Locales}).

@menu
* Visiting Files::           Reading files into Emacs buffers for editing.
* Saving Buffers::           Writing changed buffers back into files.
* Reading from Files::       Reading files into buffers without visiting.
* Writing to Files::         Writing new files from parts of buffers.
* File Locks::               Locking and unlocking files, to prevent
                               simultaneous editing by two people.
* Information about Files::  Testing existence, accessibility, size of files.
* Changing Files::           Renaming files, changing permissions, etc.
* File Names::               Decomposing and expanding file names.
* Contents of Directories::  Getting a list of the files in a directory.
* Create/Delete Dirs::       Creating and Deleting Directories.
* Magic File Names::         Special handling for certain file names.
* Format Conversion::        Conversion to and from various file formats.
@end menu

@node Visiting Files
@section Visiting Files
@cindex finding files
@cindex visiting files

  Visiting a file means reading a file into a buffer.  Once this is
done, we say that the buffer is @dfn{visiting} that file, and call the
file ``the visited file'' of the buffer.

  A file and a buffer are two different things.  A file is information
recorded permanently in the computer (unless you delete it).  A buffer,
on the other hand, is information inside of Emacs that will vanish at
the end of the editing session (or when you kill the buffer).  Usually,
a buffer contains information that you have copied from a file; then we
say the buffer is visiting that file.  The copy in the buffer is what
you modify with editing commands.  Such changes to the buffer do not
change the file; therefore, to make the changes permanent, you must
@dfn{save} the buffer, which means copying the altered buffer contents
back into the file.

  In spite of the distinction between files and buffers, people often
refer to a file when they mean a buffer and vice-versa.  Indeed, we say,
``I am editing a file'', rather than, ``I am editing a buffer that I
will soon save as a file of the same name''.  Humans do not usually need
to make the distinction explicit.  When dealing with a computer program,
however, it is good to keep the distinction in mind.

@menu
* Visiting Functions::         The usual interface functions for visiting.
* Subroutines of Visiting::    Lower-level subroutines that they use.
@end menu

@node Visiting Functions
@subsection Functions for Visiting Files

  This section describes the functions normally used to visit files.
For historical reasons, these functions have names starting with
@samp{find-} rather than @samp{visit-}.  @xref{Buffer File Name}, for
functions and variables that access the visited file name of a buffer or
that find an existing buffer by its visited file name.

  In a Lisp program, if you want to look at the contents of a file but
not alter it, the fastest way is to use @code{insert-file-contents} in a
temporary buffer.  Visiting the file is not necessary and takes longer.
@xref{Reading from Files}.

@deffn Command find-file filename &optional wildcards
This command selects a buffer visiting the file @var{filename},
using an existing buffer if there is one, and otherwise creating a
new buffer and reading the file into it.  It also returns that buffer.

Aside from some technical details, the body of the @code{find-file}
function is basically equivalent to:

@smallexample
(switch-to-buffer (find-file-noselect filename nil nil wildcards))
@end smallexample

@noindent
(See @code{switch-to-buffer} in @ref{Switching Buffers}.)

If @var{wildcards} is non-@code{nil}, which is always true in an
interactive call, then @code{find-file} expands wildcard characters in
@var{filename} and visits all the matching files.

When @code{find-file} is called interactively, it prompts for
@var{filename} in the minibuffer.
@end deffn

@deffn Command find-file-literally filename
This command visits @var{filename}, like @code{find-file} does, but it
does not perform any format conversions (@pxref{Format Conversion}),
character code conversions (@pxref{Coding Systems}), or end-of-line
conversions (@pxref{Coding System Basics, End of line conversion}).
The buffer visiting the file is made unibyte, and its major mode is
Fundamental mode, regardless of the file name.  File local variable
specifications  in the file (@pxref{File Local Variables}) are
ignored, and automatic decompression and adding a newline at the end
of the file due to @code{require-final-newline} (@pxref{Saving
Buffers, require-final-newline}) are also disabled.

Note that if Emacs already has a buffer visiting the same file
non-literally, it will not visit the same file literally, but instead
just switch to the existing buffer.  If you want to be sure of
accessing a file's contents literally, you should create a temporary
buffer and then read the file contents into it using
@code{insert-file-contents-literally} (@pxref{Reading from Files}).
@end deffn

@defun find-file-noselect filename &optional nowarn rawfile wildcards
This function is the guts of all the file-visiting functions.  It
returns a buffer visiting the file @var{filename}.  You may make the
buffer current or display it in a window if you wish, but this
function does not do so.

The function returns an existing buffer if there is one; otherwise it
creates a new buffer and reads the file into it.  When
@code{find-file-noselect} uses an existing buffer, it first verifies
that the file has not changed since it was last visited or saved in
that buffer.  If the file has changed, this function asks the user
whether to reread the changed file.  If the user says @samp{yes}, any
edits previously made in the buffer are lost.

Reading the file involves decoding the file's contents (@pxref{Coding
Systems}), including end-of-line conversion, and format conversion
(@pxref{Format Conversion}).  If @var{wildcards} is non-@code{nil},
then @code{find-file-noselect} expands wildcard characters in
@var{filename} and visits all the matching files.

This function displays warning or advisory messages in various peculiar
cases, unless the optional argument @var{nowarn} is non-@code{nil}.  For
example, if it needs to create a buffer, and there is no file named
@var{filename}, it displays the message @samp{(New file)} in the echo
area, and leaves the buffer empty.

The @code{find-file-noselect} function normally calls
@code{after-find-file} after reading the file (@pxref{Subroutines of
Visiting}).  That function sets the buffer major mode, parses local
variables, warns the user if there exists an auto-save file more recent
than the file just visited, and finishes by running the functions in
@code{find-file-hook}.

If the optional argument @var{rawfile} is non-@code{nil}, then
@code{after-find-file} is not called, and the
@code{find-file-not-found-functions} are not run in case of failure.
What's more, a non-@code{nil} @var{rawfile} value suppresses coding
system conversion and format conversion.

The @code{find-file-noselect} function usually returns the buffer that
is visiting the file @var{filename}.  But, if wildcards are actually
used and expanded, it returns a list of buffers that are visiting the
various files.

@example
@group
(find-file-noselect "/etc/fstab")
     @result{} #<buffer fstab>
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@deffn Command find-file-other-window filename &optional wildcards
This command selects a buffer visiting the file @var{filename}, but
does so in a window other than the selected window.  It may use
another existing window or split a window; see @ref{Switching
Buffers}.

When this command is called interactively, it prompts for
@var{filename}.
@end deffn

@deffn Command find-file-read-only filename &optional wildcards
This command selects a buffer visiting the file @var{filename}, like
@code{find-file}, but it marks the buffer as read-only.  @xref{Read Only
Buffers}, for related functions and variables.

When this command is called interactively, it prompts for
@var{filename}.
@end deffn

@defopt find-file-wildcards
If this variable is non-@code{nil}, then the various @code{find-file}
commands check for wildcard characters and visit all the files that
match them (when invoked interactively or when their @var{wildcards}
argument is non-@code{nil}).  If this option is @code{nil}, then
the @code{find-file} commands ignore their @var{wildcards} argument
and never treat wildcard characters specially.
@end defopt

@defopt find-file-hook
The value of this variable is a list of functions to be called after a
file is visited.  The file's local-variables specification (if any) will
have been processed before the hooks are run.  The buffer visiting the
file is current when the hook functions are run.

This variable is a normal hook.  @xref{Hooks}.
@end defopt

@defvar find-file-not-found-functions
The value of this variable is a list of functions to be called when
@code{find-file} or @code{find-file-noselect} is passed a nonexistent
file name.  @code{find-file-noselect} calls these functions as soon as
it detects a nonexistent file.  It calls them in the order of the list,
until one of them returns non-@code{nil}.  @code{buffer-file-name} is
already set up.

This is not a normal hook because the values of the functions are
used, and in many cases only some of the functions are called.
@end defvar

@defvar find-file-literally
This buffer-local variable, if set to a non-@code{nil} value, makes
@code{save-buffer} behave as if the buffer were visiting its file
literally, i.e., without conversions of any kind.  The command
@code{find-file-literally} sets this variable's local value, but other
equivalent functions and commands can do that as well, e.g., to avoid
automatic addition of a newline at the end of the file.  This variable
is permanent local, so it is unaffected by changes of major modes.
@end defvar

@node Subroutines of Visiting
@subsection Subroutines of Visiting

  The @code{find-file-noselect} function uses two important subroutines
which are sometimes useful in user Lisp code: @code{create-file-buffer}
and @code{after-find-file}.  This section explains how to use them.

@defun create-file-buffer filename
This function creates a suitably named buffer for visiting
@var{filename}, and returns it.  It uses @var{filename} (sans directory)
as the name if that name is free; otherwise, it appends a string such as
@samp{<2>} to get an unused name.  See also @ref{Creating Buffers}.

@strong{Please note:} @code{create-file-buffer} does @emph{not}
associate the new buffer with a file and does not select the buffer.
It also does not use the default major mode.

@example
@group
(create-file-buffer "foo")
     @result{} #<buffer foo>
@end group
@group
(create-file-buffer "foo")
     @result{} #<buffer foo<2>>
@end group
@group
(create-file-buffer "foo")
     @result{} #<buffer foo<3>>
@end group
@end example

This function is used by @code{find-file-noselect}.
It uses @code{generate-new-buffer} (@pxref{Creating Buffers}).
@end defun

@defun after-find-file &optional error warn noauto after-find-file-from-revert-buffer nomodes
This function sets the buffer major mode, and parses local variables
(@pxref{Auto Major Mode}).  It is called by @code{find-file-noselect}
and by the default revert function (@pxref{Reverting}).

@cindex new file message
@cindex file open error
If reading the file got an error because the file does not exist, but
its directory does exist, the caller should pass a non-@code{nil} value
for @var{error}.  In that case, @code{after-find-file} issues a warning:
@samp{(New file)}.  For more serious errors, the caller should usually not
call @code{after-find-file}.

If @var{warn} is non-@code{nil}, then this function issues a warning
if an auto-save file exists and is more recent than the visited file.

If @var{noauto} is non-@code{nil}, that says not to enable or disable
Auto-Save mode.  The mode remains enabled if it was enabled before.

If @var{after-find-file-from-revert-buffer} is non-@code{nil}, that
means this call was from @code{revert-buffer}.  This has no direct
effect, but some mode functions and hook functions check the value
of this variable.

If @var{nomodes} is non-@code{nil}, that means don't alter the buffer's
major mode, don't process local variables specifications in the file,
and don't run @code{find-file-hook}.  This feature is used by
@code{revert-buffer} in some cases.

The last thing @code{after-find-file} does is call all the functions
in the list @code{find-file-hook}.
@end defun

@node Saving Buffers
@section Saving Buffers
@cindex saving buffers

  When you edit a file in Emacs, you are actually working on a buffer
that is visiting that file---that is, the contents of the file are
copied into the buffer and the copy is what you edit.  Changes to the
buffer do not change the file until you @dfn{save} the buffer, which
means copying the contents of the buffer into the file.

@deffn Command save-buffer &optional backup-option
This function saves the contents of the current buffer in its visited
file if the buffer has been modified since it was last visited or saved.
Otherwise it does nothing.

@code{save-buffer} is responsible for making backup files.  Normally,
@var{backup-option} is @code{nil}, and @code{save-buffer} makes a backup
file only if this is the first save since visiting the file.  Other
values for @var{backup-option} request the making of backup files in
other circumstances:

@itemize @bullet
@item
With an argument of 4 or 64, reflecting 1 or 3 @kbd{C-u}'s, the
@code{save-buffer} function marks this version of the file to be
backed up when the buffer is next saved.

@item
With an argument of 16 or 64, reflecting 2 or 3 @kbd{C-u}'s, the
@code{save-buffer} function unconditionally backs up the previous
version of the file before saving it.

@item
With an argument of 0, unconditionally do @emph{not} make any backup file.
@end itemize
@end deffn

@deffn Command save-some-buffers &optional save-silently-p pred
@anchor{Definition of save-some-buffers}
This command saves some modified file-visiting buffers.  Normally it
asks the user about each buffer.  But if @var{save-silently-p} is
non-@code{nil}, it saves all the file-visiting buffers without querying
the user.

The optional @var{pred} argument controls which buffers to ask about
(or to save silently if @var{save-silently-p} is non-@code{nil}).
If it is @code{nil}, that means to ask only about file-visiting buffers.
If it is @code{t}, that means also offer to save certain other non-file
buffers---those that have a non-@code{nil} buffer-local value of
@code{buffer-offer-save} (@pxref{Killing Buffers}).  A user who says
@samp{yes} to saving a non-file buffer is asked to specify the file
name to use.  The @code{save-buffers-kill-emacs} function passes the
value @code{t} for @var{pred}.

If @var{pred} is neither @code{t} nor @code{nil}, then it should be
a function of no arguments.  It will be called in each buffer to decide
whether to offer to save that buffer.  If it returns a non-@code{nil}
value in a certain buffer, that means do offer to save that buffer.
@end deffn

@deffn Command write-file filename &optional confirm
@anchor{Definition of write-file}
This function writes the current buffer into file @var{filename}, makes
the buffer visit that file, and marks it not modified.  Then it renames
the buffer based on @var{filename}, appending a string like @samp{<2>}
if necessary to make a unique buffer name.  It does most of this work by
calling @code{set-visited-file-name} (@pxref{Buffer File Name}) and
@code{save-buffer}.

If @var{confirm} is non-@code{nil}, that means to ask for confirmation
before overwriting an existing file.  Interactively, confirmation is
required, unless the user supplies a prefix argument.

If @var{filename} is an existing directory, or a symbolic link to one,
@code{write-file} uses the name of the visited file, in directory
@var{filename}.  If the buffer is not visiting a file, it uses the
buffer name instead.
@end deffn

  Saving a buffer runs several hooks.  It also performs format
conversion (@pxref{Format Conversion}).

@defvar write-file-functions
The value of this variable is a list of functions to be called before
writing out a buffer to its visited file.  If one of them returns
non-@code{nil}, the file is considered already written and the rest of
the functions are not called, nor is the usual code for writing the file
executed.

If a function in @code{write-file-functions} returns non-@code{nil}, it
is responsible for making a backup file (if that is appropriate).
To do so, execute the following code:

@example
(or buffer-backed-up (backup-buffer))
@end example

You might wish to save the file modes value returned by
@code{backup-buffer} and use that (if non-@code{nil}) to set the mode
bits of the file that you write.  This is what @code{save-buffer}
normally does. @xref{Making Backups,, Making Backup Files}.

The hook functions in @code{write-file-functions} are also responsible
for encoding the data (if desired): they must choose a suitable coding
system and end-of-line conversion (@pxref{Lisp and Coding Systems}),
perform the encoding (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}), and set
@code{last-coding-system-used} to the coding system that was used
(@pxref{Encoding and I/O}).

If you set this hook locally in a buffer, it is assumed to be
associated with the file or the way the contents of the buffer were
obtained.  Thus the variable is marked as a permanent local, so that
changing the major mode does not alter a buffer-local value.  On the
other hand, calling @code{set-visited-file-name} will reset it.
If this is not what you want, you might like to use
@code{write-contents-functions} instead.

Even though this is not a normal hook, you can use @code{add-hook} and
@code{remove-hook} to manipulate the list.  @xref{Hooks}.
@end defvar

@c Emacs 19 feature
@defvar write-contents-functions
This works just like @code{write-file-functions}, but it is intended
for hooks that pertain to the buffer's contents, not to the particular
visited file or its location.  Such hooks are usually set up by major
modes, as buffer-local bindings for this variable.  This variable
automatically becomes buffer-local whenever it is set; switching to a
new major mode always resets this variable, but calling
@code{set-visited-file-name} does not.

If any of the functions in this hook returns non-@code{nil}, the file
is considered already written and the rest are not called and neither
are the functions in @code{write-file-functions}.
@end defvar

@defopt before-save-hook
This normal hook runs before a buffer is saved in its visited file,
regardless of whether that is done normally or by one of the hooks
described above.  For instance, the @file{copyright.el} program uses
this hook to make sure the file you are saving has the current year in
its copyright notice.
@end defopt

@c Emacs 19 feature
@defopt after-save-hook
This normal hook runs after a buffer has been saved in its visited file.
One use of this hook is in Fast Lock mode; it uses this hook to save the
highlighting information in a cache file.
@end defopt

@defopt file-precious-flag
If this variable is non-@code{nil}, then @code{save-buffer} protects
against I/O errors while saving by writing the new file to a temporary
name instead of the name it is supposed to have, and then renaming it to
the intended name after it is clear there are no errors.  This procedure
prevents problems such as a lack of disk space from resulting in an
invalid file.

As a side effect, backups are necessarily made by copying.  @xref{Rename
or Copy}.  Yet, at the same time, saving a precious file always breaks
all hard links between the file you save and other file names.

Some modes give this variable a non-@code{nil} buffer-local value
in particular buffers.
@end defopt

@defopt require-final-newline
This variable determines whether files may be written out that do
@emph{not} end with a newline.  If the value of the variable is
@code{t}, then @code{save-buffer} silently adds a newline at the end
of the buffer whenever it does not already end in one.  If the value
is @code{visit}, Emacs adds a missing newline just after it visits the
file.  If the value is @code{visit-save}, Emacs adds a missing newline
both on visiting and on saving.  For any other non-@code{nil} value,
@code{save-buffer} asks the user whether to add a newline each time
the case arises.

If the value of the variable is @code{nil}, then @code{save-buffer}
doesn't add newlines at all.  @code{nil} is the default value, but a few
major modes set it to @code{t} in particular buffers.
@end defopt

  See also the function @code{set-visited-file-name} (@pxref{Buffer File
Name}).

@node Reading from Files
@section Reading from Files
@cindex reading from files

  You can copy a file from the disk and insert it into a buffer
using the @code{insert-file-contents} function.  Don't use the user-level
command @code{insert-file} in a Lisp program, as that sets the mark.

@defun insert-file-contents filename &optional visit beg end replace
This function inserts the contents of file @var{filename} into the
current buffer after point.  It returns a list of the absolute file name
and the length of the data inserted.  An error is signaled if
@var{filename} is not the name of a file that can be read.

This function checks the file contents against the defined file
formats, and converts the file contents if appropriate and also calls
the functions in the list @code{after-insert-file-functions}.
@xref{Format Conversion}.  Normally, one of the functions in the
@code{after-insert-file-functions} list determines the coding system
(@pxref{Coding Systems}) used for decoding the file's contents,
including end-of-line conversion.  However, if the file contains null
bytes, it is by default visited without any code conversions.
@xref{Lisp and Coding Systems, inhibit-null-byte-detection}.

If @var{visit} is non-@code{nil}, this function additionally marks the
buffer as unmodified and sets up various fields in the buffer so that it
is visiting the file @var{filename}: these include the buffer's visited
file name and its last save file modtime.  This feature is used by
@code{find-file-noselect} and you probably should not use it yourself.

If @var{beg} and @var{end} are non-@code{nil}, they should be integers
specifying the portion of the file to insert.  In this case, @var{visit}
must be @code{nil}.  For example,

@example
(insert-file-contents filename nil 0 500)
@end example

@noindent
inserts the first 500 characters of a file.

If the argument @var{replace} is non-@code{nil}, it means to replace the
contents of the buffer (actually, just the accessible portion) with the
contents of the file.  This is better than simply deleting the buffer
contents and inserting the whole file, because (1) it preserves some
marker positions and (2) it puts less data in the undo list.

It is possible to read a special file (such as a FIFO or an I/O device)
with @code{insert-file-contents}, as long as @var{replace} and
@var{visit} are @code{nil}.
@end defun

@defun insert-file-contents-literally filename &optional visit beg end replace
This function works like @code{insert-file-contents} except that it
does not run @code{find-file-hook}, and does not do format decoding,
character code conversion, automatic uncompression, and so on.
@end defun

If you want to pass a file name to another process so that another
program can read the file, use the function @code{file-local-copy}; see
@ref{Magic File Names}.

@node Writing to Files
@section Writing to Files
@cindex writing to files

  You can write the contents of a buffer, or part of a buffer, directly
to a file on disk using the @code{append-to-file} and
@code{write-region} functions.  Don't use these functions to write to
files that are being visited; that could cause confusion in the
mechanisms for visiting.

@deffn Command append-to-file start end filename
This function appends the contents of the region delimited by
@var{start} and @var{end} in the current buffer to the end of file
@var{filename}.  If that file does not exist, it is created.  This
function returns @code{nil}.

An error is signaled if @var{filename} specifies a nonwritable file,
or a nonexistent file in a directory where files cannot be created.

When called from Lisp, this function is completely equivalent to:

@example
(write-region start end filename t)
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn Command write-region start end filename &optional append visit lockname mustbenew
This function writes the region delimited by @var{start} and @var{end}
in the current buffer into the file specified by @var{filename}.

If @var{start} is @code{nil}, then the command writes the entire buffer
contents (@emph{not} just the accessible portion) to the file and
ignores @var{end}.

@c Emacs 19 feature
If @var{start} is a string, then @code{write-region} writes or appends
that string, rather than text from the buffer.  @var{end} is ignored in
this case.

If @var{append} is non-@code{nil}, then the specified text is appended
to the existing file contents (if any).  If @var{append} is an
integer, @code{write-region} seeks to that byte offset from the start
of the file and writes the data from there.

If @var{mustbenew} is non-@code{nil}, then @code{write-region} asks
for confirmation if @var{filename} names an existing file.  If
@var{mustbenew} is the symbol @code{excl}, then @code{write-region}
does not ask for confirmation, but instead it signals an error
@code{file-already-exists} if the file already exists.

The test for an existing file, when @var{mustbenew} is @code{excl}, uses
a special system feature.  At least for files on a local disk, there is
no chance that some other program could create a file of the same name
before Emacs does, without Emacs's noticing.

If @var{visit} is @code{t}, then Emacs establishes an association
between the buffer and the file: the buffer is then visiting that file.
It also sets the last file modification time for the current buffer to
@var{filename}'s modtime, and marks the buffer as not modified.  This
feature is used by @code{save-buffer}, but you probably should not use
it yourself.

@c Emacs 19 feature
If @var{visit} is a string, it specifies the file name to visit.  This
way, you can write the data to one file (@var{filename}) while recording
the buffer as visiting another file (@var{visit}).  The argument
@var{visit} is used in the echo area message and also for file locking;
@var{visit} is stored in @code{buffer-file-name}.  This feature is used
to implement @code{file-precious-flag}; don't use it yourself unless you
really know what you're doing.

The optional argument @var{lockname}, if non-@code{nil}, specifies the
file name to use for purposes of locking and unlocking, overriding
@var{filename} and @var{visit} for that purpose.

The function @code{write-region} converts the data which it writes to
the appropriate file formats specified by @code{buffer-file-format}
and also calls the functions in the list
@code{write-region-annotate-functions}.
@xref{Format Conversion}.

Normally, @code{write-region} displays the message @samp{Wrote
@var{filename}} in the echo area.  If @var{visit} is neither @code{t}
nor @code{nil} nor a string, then this message is inhibited.  This
feature is useful for programs that use files for internal purposes,
files that the user does not need to know about.
@end deffn

@defmac with-temp-file file body@dots{}
@anchor{Definition of with-temp-file}
The @code{with-temp-file} macro evaluates the @var{body} forms with a
temporary buffer as the current buffer; then, at the end, it writes the
buffer contents into file @var{file}.  It kills the temporary buffer
when finished, restoring the buffer that was current before the
@code{with-temp-file} form.  Then it returns the value of the last form
in @var{body}.

The current buffer is restored even in case of an abnormal exit via
@code{throw} or error (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}).

See also @code{with-temp-buffer} in @ref{Definition of
with-temp-buffer,, The Current Buffer}.
@end defmac

@node File Locks
@section File Locks
@cindex file locks
@cindex lock file

  When two users edit the same file at the same time, they are likely
to interfere with each other.  Emacs tries to prevent this situation
from arising by recording a @dfn{file lock} when a file is being
modified.  (File locks are not implemented on Microsoft systems.)
Emacs can then detect the first attempt to modify a buffer visiting a
file that is locked by another Emacs job, and ask the user what to do.
The file lock is really a file, a symbolic link with a special name,
stored in the same directory as the file you are editing.

  When you access files using NFS, there may be a small probability that
you and another user will both lock the same file ``simultaneously''.
If this happens, it is possible for the two users to make changes
simultaneously, but Emacs will still warn the user who saves second.
Also, the detection of modification of a buffer visiting a file changed
on disk catches some cases of simultaneous editing; see
@ref{Modification Time}.

@defun file-locked-p filename
This function returns @code{nil} if the file @var{filename} is not
locked.  It returns @code{t} if it is locked by this Emacs process, and
it returns the name of the user who has locked it if it is locked by
some other job.

@example
@group
(file-locked-p "foo")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun lock-buffer &optional filename
This function locks the file @var{filename}, if the current buffer is
modified.  The argument @var{filename} defaults to the current buffer's
visited file.  Nothing is done if the current buffer is not visiting a
file, or is not modified, or if the system does not support locking.
@end defun

@defun unlock-buffer
This function unlocks the file being visited in the current buffer,
if the buffer is modified.  If the buffer is not modified, then
the file should not be locked, so this function does nothing.  It also
does nothing if the current buffer is not visiting a file, or if the
system does not support locking.
@end defun

  File locking is not supported on some systems.  On systems that do not
support it, the functions @code{lock-buffer}, @code{unlock-buffer} and
@code{file-locked-p} do nothing and return @code{nil}.  It is also
possible to disable locking, by setting the variable @code{create-lockfiles}.

@defopt create-lockfiles
If this variable is @code{nil}, Emacs does not lock files.
@end defopt

@defun ask-user-about-lock file other-user
This function is called when the user tries to modify @var{file}, but it
is locked by another user named @var{other-user}.  The default
definition of this function asks the user to say what to do.  The value
this function returns determines what Emacs does next:

@itemize @bullet
@item
A value of @code{t} says to grab the lock on the file.  Then
this user may edit the file and @var{other-user} loses the lock.

@item
A value of @code{nil} says to ignore the lock and let this
user edit the file anyway.

@item
@kindex file-locked
This function may instead signal a @code{file-locked} error, in which
case the change that the user was about to make does not take place.

The error message for this error looks like this:

@example
@error{} File is locked: @var{file} @var{other-user}
@end example

@noindent
where @code{file} is the name of the file and @var{other-user} is the
name of the user who has locked the file.
@end itemize

If you wish, you can replace the @code{ask-user-about-lock} function
with your own version that makes the decision in another way.  The code
for its usual definition is in @file{userlock.el}.
@end defun

@node Information about Files
@section Information about Files
@cindex file, information about

  The functions described in this section all operate on strings that
designate file names.  With a few exceptions, all the functions have
names that begin with the word @samp{file}.  These functions all
return information about actual files or directories, so their
arguments must all exist as actual files or directories unless
otherwise noted.

@menu
* Testing Accessibility::   Is a given file readable?  Writable?
* Kinds of Files::          Is it a directory?  A symbolic link?
* Truenames::               Eliminating symbolic links from a file name.
* File Attributes::         How large is it?  Any other names?  Etc.
* Locating Files::          How to find a file in standard places.
@end menu

@node Testing Accessibility
@subsection Testing Accessibility
@cindex accessibility of a file
@cindex file accessibility

  These functions test for permission to access a file in specific
ways.  Unless explicitly stated otherwise, they recursively follow
symbolic links for their file name arguments, at all levels (at the
level of the file itself and at all levels of parent directories).

@defun file-exists-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if a file named @var{filename} appears
to exist.  This does not mean you can necessarily read the file, only
that you can find out its attributes.  (On Unix and GNU/Linux, this is
true if the file exists and you have execute permission on the
containing directories, regardless of the permissions of the file
itself.)

If the file does not exist, or if fascist access control policies
prevent you from finding the attributes of the file, this function
returns @code{nil}.

Directories are files, so @code{file-exists-p} returns @code{t} when
given a directory name.  However, symbolic links are treated
specially; @code{file-exists-p} returns @code{t} for a symbolic link
name only if the target file exists.
@end defun

@defun file-readable-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if a file named @var{filename} exists
and you can read it.  It returns @code{nil} otherwise.

@example
@group
(file-readable-p "files.texi")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-exists-p "/usr/spool/mqueue")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-readable-p "/usr/spool/mqueue")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@c Emacs 19 feature
@defun file-executable-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if a file named @var{filename} exists and
you can execute it.  It returns @code{nil} otherwise.  On Unix and
GNU/Linux, if the file is a directory, execute permission means you can
check the existence and attributes of files inside the directory, and
open those files if their modes permit.
@end defun

@defun file-writable-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if the file @var{filename} can be written
or created by you, and @code{nil} otherwise.  A file is writable if the
file exists and you can write it.  It is creatable if it does not exist,
but the specified directory does exist and you can write in that
directory.

In the third example below, @file{foo} is not writable because the
parent directory does not exist, even though the user could create such
a directory.

@example
@group
(file-writable-p "~/foo")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-writable-p "/foo")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-writable-p "~/no-such-dir/foo")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@c Emacs 19 feature
@defun file-accessible-directory-p dirname
This function returns @code{t} if you have permission to open existing
files in the directory whose name as a file is @var{dirname};
otherwise (or if there is no such directory), it returns @code{nil}.
The value of @var{dirname} may be either a directory name (such as
@file{/foo/}) or the file name of a file which is a directory
(such as @file{/foo}, without the final slash).

Example: after the following,

@example
(file-accessible-directory-p "/foo")
     @result{} nil
@end example

@noindent
we can deduce that any attempt to read a file in @file{/foo/} will
give an error.
@end defun

@defun access-file filename string
This function opens file @var{filename} for reading, then closes it and
returns @code{nil}.  However, if the open fails, it signals an error
using @var{string} as the error message text.
@end defun

@defun file-ownership-preserved-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if deleting the file @var{filename} and
then creating it anew would keep the file's owner unchanged.  It also
returns @code{t} for nonexistent files.

If @var{filename} is a symbolic link, then, unlike the other functions
discussed here, @code{file-ownership-preserved-p} does @emph{not}
replace @var{filename} with its target.  However, it does recursively
follow symbolic links at all levels of parent directories.
@end defun

@defun file-newer-than-file-p filename1 filename2
@cindex file age
@cindex file modification time
This function returns @code{t} if the file @var{filename1} is
newer than file @var{filename2}.  If @var{filename1} does not
exist, it returns @code{nil}.  If @var{filename1} does exist, but
@var{filename2} does not, it returns @code{t}.

In the following example, assume that the file @file{aug-19} was written
on the 19th, @file{aug-20} was written on the 20th, and the file
@file{no-file} doesn't exist at all.

@example
@group
(file-newer-than-file-p "aug-19" "aug-20")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-newer-than-file-p "aug-20" "aug-19")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-newer-than-file-p "aug-19" "no-file")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-newer-than-file-p "no-file" "aug-19")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example

You can use @code{file-attributes} to get a file's last modification
time as a list of four integers.  @xref{File Attributes}.
@end defun

@node Kinds of Files
@subsection Distinguishing Kinds of Files

  This section describes how to distinguish various kinds of files, such
as directories, symbolic links, and ordinary files.

@defun file-symlink-p filename
@cindex file symbolic links
If the file @var{filename} is a symbolic link, the
@code{file-symlink-p} function returns the (non-recursive) link target
as a string.  (Determining the file name that the link points to from
the target is nontrivial.)  First, this function recursively follows
symbolic links at all levels of parent directories.

If the file @var{filename} is not a symbolic link (or there is no such file),
@code{file-symlink-p} returns @code{nil}.

@example
@group
(file-symlink-p "foo")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-symlink-p "sym-link")
     @result{} "foo"
@end group
@group
(file-symlink-p "sym-link2")
     @result{} "sym-link"
@end group
@group
(file-symlink-p "/bin")
     @result{} "/pub/bin"
@end group
@end example

@c !!! file-symlink-p: should show output of ls -l for comparison
@end defun

The next two functions recursively follow symbolic links at
all levels for @var{filename}.

@defun file-directory-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if @var{filename} is the name of an
existing directory, @code{nil} otherwise.

@example
@group
(file-directory-p "~rms")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-directory-p "~rms/lewis/files.texi")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-directory-p "~rms/lewis/no-such-file")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-directory-p "$HOME")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-directory-p
 (substitute-in-file-name "$HOME"))
     @result{} t
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun file-regular-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if the file @var{filename} exists and is
a regular file (not a directory, named pipe, terminal, or
other I/O device).
@end defun

@defun file-equal-p file1 file2
This function returns @code{t} if the files @var{file1} and
@var{file2} name the same file.  If @var{file1} or @var{file2} does
not exist, the return value is unspecified.
@end defun

@defun file-in-directory-p file dir
This function returns @code{t} if @var{file} is a file in directory
@var{dir}, or in a subdirectory of @var{dir}.  It also returns
@code{t} if @var{file} and @var{dir} are the same directory.  It
compares the @code{file-truename} values of the two directories
(@pxref{Truenames}).  If @var{dir} does not name an existing
directory, the return value is @code{nil}.
@end defun

@node Truenames
@subsection Truenames
@cindex truename (of file)

  The @dfn{truename} of a file is the name that you get by following
symbolic links at all levels until none remain, then simplifying away
@samp{.}@: and @samp{..}@: appearing as name components.  This results
in a sort of canonical name for the file.  A file does not always have a
unique truename; the number of distinct truenames a file has is equal to
the number of hard links to the file.  However, truenames are useful
because they eliminate symbolic links as a cause of name variation.

@defun file-truename filename
This function returns the truename of the file @var{filename}.  If the
argument is not an absolute file name, this function first expands it
against @code{default-directory}.

This function does not expand environment variables.  Only
@code{substitute-in-file-name} does that.  @xref{Definition of
substitute-in-file-name}.

If you may need to follow symbolic links preceding @samp{..}@:
appearing as a name component, you should make sure to call
@code{file-truename} without prior direct or indirect calls to
@code{expand-file-name}, as otherwise the file name component
immediately preceding @samp{..} will be ``simplified away'' before
@code{file-truename} is called.  To eliminate the need for a call to
@code{expand-file-name}, @code{file-truename} handles @samp{~} in the
same way that @code{expand-file-name} does.  @xref{File Name
Expansion,, Functions that Expand Filenames}.
@end defun

@defun file-chase-links filename &optional limit
This function follows symbolic links, starting with @var{filename},
until it finds a file name which is not the name of a symbolic link.
Then it returns that file name.  This function does @emph{not} follow
symbolic links at the level of parent directories.

If you specify a number for @var{limit}, then after chasing through
that many links, the function just returns what it has even if that is
still a symbolic link.
@end defun

  To illustrate the difference between @code{file-chase-links} and
@code{file-truename}, suppose that @file{/usr/foo} is a symbolic link to
the directory @file{/home/foo}, and @file{/home/foo/hello} is an
ordinary file (or at least, not a symbolic link) or nonexistent.  Then
we would have:

@example
(file-chase-links "/usr/foo/hello")
     ;; @r{This does not follow the links in the parent directories.}
     @result{} "/usr/foo/hello"
(file-truename "/usr/foo/hello")
     ;; @r{Assuming that @file{/home} is not a symbolic link.}
     @result{} "/home/foo/hello"
@end example

  @xref{Buffer File Name}, for related information.

@node File Attributes
@subsection Other Information about Files

  This section describes the functions for getting detailed
information about a file, other than its contents.  This information
includes the mode bits that control access permissions, the owner and
group numbers, the number of names, the inode number, the size, and
the times of access and modification.

@defun file-modes filename
@cindex file permissions
@cindex permissions, file
@cindex file attributes
@cindex file modes
This function returns the @dfn{mode bits} describing the @dfn{file
permissions} of @var{filename}, as an integer.  It recursively follows
symbolic links in @var{filename} at all levels.  If @var{filename}
does not exist, the return value is @code{nil}.

@xref{File Permissions,,, coreutils, The @sc{gnu} @code{Coreutils}
Manual}, for a description of mode bits.  If the low-order bit is 1,
then the file is executable by all users, if the second-lowest-order
bit is 1, then the file is writable by all users, etc.  The highest
value returnable is 4095 (7777 octal), meaning that everyone has read,
write, and execute permission, that the @acronym{SUID} bit is set for
both others and group, and that the sticky bit is set.

@example
@group
(file-modes "~/junk/diffs")
     @result{} 492               ; @r{Decimal integer.}
@end group
@group
(format "%o" 492)
     @result{} "754"             ; @r{Convert to octal.}
@end group

@group
(set-file-modes "~/junk/diffs" #o666)
     @result{} nil
@end group

@group
% ls -l diffs
  -rw-rw-rw-  1 lewis 0 3063 Oct 30 16:00 diffs
@end group
@end example

@xref{Changing Files}, for functions that change file permissions,
such as @code{set-file-modes}.

@cindex MS-DOS and file modes
@cindex file modes and MS-DOS
@strong{MS-DOS note:} On MS-DOS, there is no such thing as an
``executable'' file mode bit.  So @code{file-modes} considers a file
executable if its name ends in one of the standard executable
extensions, such as @file{.com}, @file{.bat}, @file{.exe}, and some
others.  Files that begin with the Unix-standard @samp{#!} signature,
such as shell and Perl scripts, are also considered executable.
Directories are also reported as executable, for compatibility with
Unix.  These conventions are also followed by @code{file-attributes},
below.
@end defun

  If the @var{filename} argument to the next two functions is a
symbolic link, then these function do @emph{not} replace it with its
target.  However, they both recursively follow symbolic links at all
levels of parent directories.

@defun file-nlinks filename
This functions returns the number of names (i.e., hard links) that
file @var{filename} has.  If the file does not exist, then this function
returns @code{nil}.  Note that symbolic links have no effect on this
function, because they are not considered to be names of the files they
link to.

@example
@group
% ls -l foo*
-rw-rw-rw-  2 rms       4 Aug 19 01:27 foo
-rw-rw-rw-  2 rms       4 Aug 19 01:27 foo1
@end group

@group
(file-nlinks "foo")
     @result{} 2
@end group
@group
(file-nlinks "doesnt-exist")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun file-attributes filename &optional id-format
@anchor{Definition of file-attributes}
This function returns a list of attributes of file @var{filename}.  If
the specified file cannot be opened, it returns @code{nil}.
The optional parameter @var{id-format} specifies the preferred format
of attributes @acronym{UID} and @acronym{GID} (see below)---the
valid values are @code{'string} and @code{'integer}.  The latter is
the default, but we plan to change that, so you should specify a
non-@code{nil} value for @var{id-format} if you use the returned
@acronym{UID} or @acronym{GID}.

The elements of the list, in order, are:

@enumerate 0
@item
@code{t} for a directory, a string for a symbolic link (the name
linked to), or @code{nil} for a text file.

@c Wordy so as to prevent an overfull hbox.  --rjc 15mar92
@item
The number of names the file has.  Alternate names, also known as hard
links, can be created by using the @code{add-name-to-file} function
(@pxref{Changing Files}).

@item
The file's @acronym{UID}, normally as a string.  However, if it does
not correspond to a named user, the value is an integer or a floating
point number.

@item
The file's @acronym{GID}, likewise.

@item
The time of last access, as a list of four integers @code{(@var{sec-high}
@var{sec-low} @var{microsec} @var{picosec})}.  (This is similar to the
value of @code{current-time}; see @ref{Time of Day}.)  Note that on
some FAT-based filesystems, only the date of last access is recorded,
so this time will always hold the midnight of the day of last access.

@cindex modification time of file
@item
The time of last modification as a list of four integers (as above).
This is the last time when the file's contents were modified.

@item
The time of last status change as a list of four integers (as above).
This is the time of the last change to the file's access mode bits,
its owner and group, and other information recorded in the filesystem
for the file, beyond the file's contents.

@item
The size of the file in bytes.  If the size is too large to fit in a
Lisp integer, this is a floating point number.

@item
The file's modes, as a string of ten letters or dashes,
as in @samp{ls -l}.

@item
@code{t} if the file's @acronym{GID} would change if file were
deleted and recreated; @code{nil} otherwise.

@item
The file's inode number.  If possible, this is an integer.  If the
inode number is too large to be represented as an integer in Emacs
Lisp but dividing it by @math{2^16} yields a representable integer,
then the value has the
form @code{(@var{high} . @var{low})}, where @var{low} holds the low 16
bits.  If the inode number is too wide for even that, the value is of the form
@code{(@var{high} @var{middle} . @var{low})}, where @code{high} holds
the high bits, @var{middle} the middle 24 bits, and @var{low} the low
16 bits.

@item
The filesystem number of the device that the file is on.  Depending on
the magnitude of the value, this can be either an integer or a cons
cell, in the same manner as the inode number.  This element and the
file's inode number together give enough information to distinguish
any two files on the system---no two files can have the same values
for both of these numbers.
@end enumerate

For example, here are the file attributes for @file{files.texi}:

@example
@group
(file-attributes "files.texi" 'string)
     @result{}  (nil 1 "lh" "users"
          (20614 64019 50040 152000)
          (20000 23 0 0)
          (20614 64555 902289 872000)
          122295 "-rw-rw-rw-"
          nil  (5888 2 . 43978)
          (15479 . 46724))
@end group
@end example

@noindent
and here is how the result is interpreted:

@table @code
@item nil
is neither a directory nor a symbolic link.

@item 1
has only one name (the name @file{files.texi} in the current default
directory).

@item "lh"
is owned by the user with name "lh".

@item "users"
is in the group with name "users".

@item (20614 64019 50040 152000)
was last accessed on October 23, 2012, at 20:12:03.050040152 UTC.

@item (20000 23 0 0)
was last modified on July 15, 2001, at 08:53:43 UTC.

@item (20614 64555 902289 872000)
last had its status changed on October 23, 2012, at 20:20:59.902289872 UTC.

@item 122295
is 122295 bytes long.  (It may not contain 122295 characters, though,
if some of the bytes belong to multibyte sequences, and also if the
end-of-line format is CR-LF.)

@item "-rw-rw-rw-"
has a mode of read and write access for the owner, group, and world.

@item nil
would retain the same @acronym{GID} if it were recreated.

@item (5888 2 . 43978)
has an inode number of 6473924464520138.

@item (15479 . 46724)
is on the file-system device whose number is 1014478468.
@end table
@end defun

@cindex SELinux context
  SELinux is a Linux kernel feature which provides more sophisticated
file access controls than ordinary ``Unix-style'' file permissions.
If Emacs has been compiled with SELinux support on a system with
SELinux enabled, you can use the function @code{file-selinux-context}
to retrieve a file's SELinux security context.  For the function
@code{set-file-selinux-context}, see @ref{Changing Files}.

@defun file-selinux-context filename
This function returns the SELinux security context of the file
@var{filename}.  This return value is a list of the form
@code{(@var{user} @var{role} @var{type} @var{range})}, whose elements
are the context's user, role, type, and range respectively, as Lisp
strings.  See the SELinux documentation for details about what these
actually mean.

If the file does not exist or is inaccessible, or if the system does
not support SELinux, or if Emacs was not compiled with SELinux
support, then the return value is @code{(nil nil nil nil)}.
@end defun

@node Locating Files
@subsection How to Locate Files in Standard Places
@cindex locate file in path
@cindex find file in path

  This section explains how to search for a file in a list of
directories (a @dfn{path}), or for an executable file in the standard
list of executable file directories.

  To search for a user-specific configuration file, @xref{Standard
File Names}, for the @code{locate-user-emacs-file} function.

@defun locate-file filename path &optional suffixes predicate
This function searches for a file whose name is @var{filename} in a
list of directories given by @var{path}, trying the suffixes in
@var{suffixes}.  If it finds such a file, it returns the file's
absolute file name (@pxref{Relative File Names}); otherwise it returns
@code{nil}.

The optional argument @var{suffixes} gives the list of file-name
suffixes to append to @var{filename} when searching.
@code{locate-file} tries each possible directory with each of these
suffixes.  If @var{suffixes} is @code{nil}, or @code{("")}, then there
are no suffixes, and @var{filename} is used only as-is.  Typical
values of @var{suffixes} are @code{exec-suffixes} (@pxref{Subprocess
Creation}), @code{load-suffixes}, @code{load-file-rep-suffixes} and
the return value of the function @code{get-load-suffixes} (@pxref{Load
Suffixes}).

Typical values for @var{path} are @code{exec-path} (@pxref{Subprocess
Creation}) when looking for executable programs, or @code{load-path}
(@pxref{Library Search}) when looking for Lisp files.  If
@var{filename} is absolute, @var{path} has no effect, but the suffixes
in @var{suffixes} are still tried.

The optional argument @var{predicate}, if non-@code{nil}, specifies a
predicate function for testing whether a candidate file is suitable.
The predicate is passed the candidate file name as its single
argument.  If @var{predicate} is @code{nil} or omitted,
@code{locate-file} uses @code{file-readable-p} as the predicate.
@xref{Kinds of Files}, for other useful predicates, e.g.,
@code{file-executable-p} and @code{file-directory-p}.

For compatibility, @var{predicate} can also be one of the symbols
@code{executable}, @code{readable}, @code{writable}, @code{exists}, or
a list of one or more of these symbols.
@end defun

@defun executable-find program
This function searches for the executable file of the named
@var{program} and returns the absolute file name of the executable,
including its file-name extensions, if any.  It returns @code{nil} if
the file is not found.  The functions searches in all the directories
in @code{exec-path}, and tries all the file-name extensions in
@code{exec-suffixes} (@pxref{Subprocess Creation}).
@end defun

@node Changing Files
@section Changing File Names and Attributes
@c @cindex renaming files  Duplicates rename-file
@cindex copying files
@cindex deleting files
@cindex linking files
@cindex setting modes of files

  The functions in this section rename, copy, delete, link, and set
the modes (permissions) of files.

  In the functions that have an argument @var{newname}, if a file by the
name of @var{newname} already exists, the actions taken depend on the
value of the argument @var{ok-if-already-exists}:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Signal a @code{file-already-exists} error if
@var{ok-if-already-exists} is @code{nil}.

@item
Request confirmation if @var{ok-if-already-exists} is a number.

@item
Replace the old file without confirmation if @var{ok-if-already-exists}
is any other value.
@end itemize

The next four commands all recursively follow symbolic links at all
levels of parent directories for their first argument, but, if that
argument is itself a symbolic link, then only @code{copy-file}
replaces it with its (recursive) target.

@deffn Command add-name-to-file oldname newname &optional ok-if-already-exists
@cindex file with multiple names
@cindex file hard link
This function gives the file named @var{oldname} the additional name
@var{newname}.  This means that @var{newname} becomes a new ``hard
link'' to @var{oldname}.

In the first part of the following example, we list two files,
@file{foo} and @file{foo3}.

@example
@group
% ls -li fo*
81908 -rw-rw-rw-  1 rms       29 Aug 18 20:32 foo
84302 -rw-rw-rw-  1 rms       24 Aug 18 20:31 foo3
@end group
@end example

Now we create a hard link, by calling @code{add-name-to-file}, then list
the files again.  This shows two names for one file, @file{foo} and
@file{foo2}.

@example
@group
(add-name-to-file "foo" "foo2")
     @result{} nil
@end group

@group
% ls -li fo*
81908 -rw-rw-rw-  2 rms       29 Aug 18 20:32 foo
81908 -rw-rw-rw-  2 rms       29 Aug 18 20:32 foo2
84302 -rw-rw-rw-  1 rms       24 Aug 18 20:31 foo3
@end group
@end example

Finally, we evaluate the following:

@example
(add-name-to-file "foo" "foo3" t)
@end example

@noindent
and list the files again.  Now there are three names
for one file: @file{foo}, @file{foo2}, and @file{foo3}.  The old
contents of @file{foo3} are lost.

@example
@group
(add-name-to-file "foo1" "foo3")
     @result{} nil
@end group

@group
% ls -li fo*
81908 -rw-rw-rw-  3 rms       29 Aug 18 20:32 foo
81908 -rw-rw-rw-  3 rms       29 Aug 18 20:32 foo2
81908 -rw-rw-rw-  3 rms       29 Aug 18 20:32 foo3
@end group
@end example

This function is meaningless on operating systems where multiple names
for one file are not allowed.  Some systems implement multiple names
by copying the file instead.

See also @code{file-nlinks} in @ref{File Attributes}.
@end deffn

@deffn Command rename-file filename newname &optional ok-if-already-exists
This command renames the file @var{filename} as @var{newname}.

If @var{filename} has additional names aside from @var{filename}, it
continues to have those names.  In fact, adding the name @var{newname}
with @code{add-name-to-file} and then deleting @var{filename} has the
same effect as renaming, aside from momentary intermediate states.
@end deffn

@deffn Command copy-file oldname newname &optional ok-if-exists time preserve-uid-gid preserve-selinux
This command copies the file @var{oldname} to @var{newname}.  An
error is signaled if @var{oldname} does not exist.  If @var{newname}
names a directory, it copies @var{oldname} into that directory,
preserving its final name component.

If @var{time} is non-@code{nil}, then this function gives the new file
the same last-modified time that the old one has.  (This works on only
some operating systems.)  If setting the time gets an error,
@code{copy-file} signals a @code{file-date-error} error.  In an
interactive call, a prefix argument specifies a non-@code{nil} value
for @var{time}.

This function copies the file modes, too.

If argument @var{preserve-uid-gid} is @code{nil}, we let the operating
system decide the user and group ownership of the new file (this is
usually set to the user running Emacs).  If @var{preserve-uid-gid} is
non-@code{nil}, we attempt to copy the user and group ownership of the
file.  This works only on some operating systems, and only if you have
the correct permissions to do so.

If the optional argument @var{preserve-selinux} is non-@code{nil}, and
Emacs has been compiled with SELinux support, this function attempts
to copy the file's SELinux context (@pxref{File Attributes}).
@end deffn

@deffn Command make-symbolic-link filename newname  &optional ok-if-exists
@pindex ln
@kindex file-already-exists
This command makes a symbolic link to @var{filename}, named
@var{newname}.  This is like the shell command @samp{ln -s
@var{filename} @var{newname}}.

This function is not available on systems that don't support symbolic
links.
@end deffn

@cindex trash
@vindex delete-by-moving-to-trash
@deffn Command delete-file filename &optional trash
@pindex rm
This command deletes the file @var{filename}.  If the file has
multiple names, it continues to exist under the other names.  If
@var{filename} is a symbolic link, @code{delete-file} deletes only the
symbolic link and not its target (though it does follow symbolic links
at all levels of parent directories).

A suitable kind of @code{file-error} error is signaled if the file
does not exist, or is not deletable.  (On Unix and GNU/Linux, a file
is deletable if its directory is writable.)

If the optional argument @var{trash} is non-@code{nil} and the
variable @code{delete-by-moving-to-trash} is non-@code{nil}, this
command moves the file into the system Trash instead of deleting it.
@xref{Misc File Ops,,Miscellaneous File Operations, emacs, The GNU
Emacs Manual}.  When called interactively, @var{trash} is @code{t} if
no prefix argument is given, and @code{nil} otherwise.

See also @code{delete-directory} in @ref{Create/Delete Dirs}.
@end deffn

@cindex file permissions, setting
@cindex permissions, file
@cindex file modes, setting
@deffn Command set-file-modes filename mode
This function sets the @dfn{file mode} (or @dfn{file permissions}) of
@var{filename} to @var{mode}.  It recursively follows symbolic links
at all levels for @var{filename}.

If called non-interactively, @var{mode} must be an integer.  Only the
lowest 12 bits of the integer are used; on most systems, only the
lowest 9 bits are meaningful.  You can use the Lisp construct for
octal numbers to enter @var{mode}.  For example,

@example
(set-file-modes #o644)
@end example

@noindent
specifies that the file should be readable and writable for its owner,
readable for group members, and readable for all other users.
@xref{File Permissions,,, coreutils, The @sc{gnu} @code{Coreutils}
Manual}, for a description of mode bit specifications.

Interactively, @var{mode} is read from the minibuffer using
@code{read-file-modes} (see below), which lets the user type in either
an integer or a string representing the permissions symbolically.

@xref{File Attributes}, for the function @code{file-modes}, which
returns the permissions of a file.
@end deffn

@defun set-default-file-modes mode
@cindex umask
This function sets the default file permissions for new files created
by Emacs and its subprocesses.  Every file created with Emacs
initially has these permissions, or a subset of them
(@code{write-region} will not grant execute permissions even if the
default file permissions allow execution).  On Unix and GNU/Linux, the
default permissions are given by the bitwise complement of the
``umask'' value.

The argument @var{mode} should be an integer which specifies the
permissions, similar to @code{set-file-modes} above.  Only the lowest
9 bits are meaningful.

The default file permissions have no effect when you save a modified
version of an existing file; saving a file preserves its existing
permissions.
@end defun

@defun default-file-modes
This function returns the default file permissions, as an integer.
@end defun

@defun read-file-modes &optional prompt base-file
This function reads a set of file mode bits from the minibuffer.  The
first optional argument @var{prompt} specifies a non-default prompt.
Second second optional argument @var{base-file} is the name of a file
on whose permissions to base the mode bits that this function returns,
if what the user types specifies mode bits relative to permissions of
an existing file.

If user input represents an octal number, this function returns that
number.  If it is a complete symbolic specification of mode bits, as
in @code{"u=rwx"}, the function converts it to the equivalent numeric
value using @code{file-modes-symbolic-to-number} and returns the
result.  If the specification is relative, as in @code{"o+g"}, then
the permissions on which the specification is based are taken from the
mode bits of @var{base-file}.  If @var{base-file} is omitted or
@code{nil}, the function uses @code{0} as the base mode bits.  The
complete and relative specifications can be combined, as in
@code{"u+r,g+rx,o+r,g-w"}.  @xref{File Permissions,,, coreutils, The
@sc{gnu} @code{Coreutils} Manual}, for a description of file mode
specifications.
@end defun

@defun file-modes-symbolic-to-number modes &optional base-modes
This function converts a symbolic file mode specification in
@var{modes} into the equivalent integer value.  If the symbolic
specification is based on an existing file, that file's mode bits are
taken from the optional argument @var{base-modes}; if that argument is
omitted or @code{nil}, it defaults to 0, i.e., no access rights at
all.
@end defun

@defun set-file-times filename &optional time
This function sets the access and modification times of @var{filename}
to @var{time}.  The return value is @code{t} if the times are successfully
set, otherwise it is @code{nil}.  @var{time} defaults to the current
time and must be in the format returned by @code{current-time}
(@pxref{Time of Day}).
@end defun

@defun set-file-selinux-context filename context
This function sets the SELinux security context of the file
@var{filename} to @var{context}.  @xref{File Attributes}, for a brief
description of SELinux contexts.  The @var{context} argument should be
a list @code{(@var{user} @var{role} @var{type} @var{range})}, like the
return value of @code{file-selinux-context}.  The function does
nothing if SELinux is disabled, or if Emacs was compiled without
SELinux support.
@end defun

@node File Names
@section File Names
@cindex file names

  Files are generally referred to by their names, in Emacs as elsewhere.
File names in Emacs are represented as strings.  The functions that
operate on a file all expect a file name argument.

  In addition to operating on files themselves, Emacs Lisp programs
often need to operate on file names; i.e., to take them apart and to use
part of a name to construct related file names.  This section describes
how to manipulate file names.

  The functions in this section do not actually access files, so they
can operate on file names that do not refer to an existing file or
directory.

@findex cygwin-convert-file-name-from-windows
@findex cygwin-convert-file-name-to-windows
@cindex MS-Windows file-name syntax
@cindex converting file names from/to MS-Windows syntax
  On MS-DOS and MS-Windows, these functions (like the function that
actually operate on files) accept MS-DOS or MS-Windows file-name syntax,
where backslashes separate the components, as well as Unix syntax; but
they always return Unix syntax.  This enables Lisp programs to specify
file names in Unix syntax and work properly on all systems without
change.@footnote{In MS-Windows versions of Emacs compiled for the Cygwin
environment, you can use the functions
@code{cygwin-convert-file-name-to-windows} and
@code{cygwin-convert-file-name-from-windows} to convert between the
two file-name syntaxes.}

@menu
* File Name Components::  The directory part of a file name, and the rest.
* Relative File Names::   Some file names are relative to a current directory.
* Directory Names::       A directory's name as a directory
                            is different from its name as a file.
* File Name Expansion::   Converting relative file names to absolute ones.
* Unique File Names::     Generating names for temporary files.
* File Name Completion::  Finding the completions for a given file name.
* Standard File Names::   If your package uses a fixed file name,
                            how to handle various operating systems simply.
@end menu

@node File Name Components
@subsection File Name Components
@cindex directory part (of file name)
@cindex nondirectory part (of file name)
@cindex version number (in file name)

  The operating system groups files into directories.  To specify a
file, you must specify the directory and the file's name within that
directory.  Therefore, Emacs considers a file name as having two main
parts: the @dfn{directory name} part, and the @dfn{nondirectory} part
(or @dfn{file name within the directory}).  Either part may be empty.
Concatenating these two parts reproduces the original file name.

  On most systems, the directory part is everything up to and including
the last slash (backslash is also allowed in input on MS-DOS or
MS-Windows); the nondirectory part is the rest.

  For some purposes, the nondirectory part is further subdivided into
the name proper and the @dfn{version number}.  On most systems, only
backup files have version numbers in their names.

@defun file-name-directory filename
This function returns the directory part of @var{filename}, as a
directory name (@pxref{Directory Names}), or @code{nil} if
@var{filename} does not include a directory part.

On GNU and Unix systems, a string returned by this function always
ends in a slash.  On MS-DOS it can also end in a colon.

@example
@group
(file-name-directory "lewis/foo")  ; @r{Unix example}
     @result{} "lewis/"
@end group
@group
(file-name-directory "foo")        ; @r{Unix example}
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun file-name-nondirectory filename
This function returns the nondirectory part of @var{filename}.

@example
@group
(file-name-nondirectory "lewis/foo")
     @result{} "foo"
@end group
@group
(file-name-nondirectory "foo")
     @result{} "foo"
@end group
@group
(file-name-nondirectory "lewis/")
     @result{} ""
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun file-name-sans-versions filename &optional keep-backup-version
This function returns @var{filename} with any file version numbers,
backup version numbers, or trailing tildes discarded.

If @var{keep-backup-version} is non-@code{nil}, then true file version
numbers understood as such by the file system are discarded from the
return value, but backup version numbers are kept.

@example
@group
(file-name-sans-versions "~rms/foo.~1~")
     @result{} "~rms/foo"
@end group
@group
(file-name-sans-versions "~rms/foo~")
     @result{} "~rms/foo"
@end group
@group
(file-name-sans-versions "~rms/foo")
     @result{} "~rms/foo"
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun file-name-extension filename &optional period
This function returns @var{filename}'s final ``extension'', if any,
after applying @code{file-name-sans-versions} to remove any
version/backup part.  The extension, in a file name, is the part that
follows the last @samp{.} in the last name component (minus any
version/backup part).

This function returns @code{nil} for extensionless file names such as
@file{foo}.  It returns @code{""} for null extensions, as in
@file{foo.}.  If the last component of a file name begins with a
@samp{.}, that @samp{.}  doesn't count as the beginning of an
extension.  Thus, @file{.emacs}'s ``extension'' is @code{nil}, not
@samp{.emacs}.

If @var{period} is non-@code{nil}, then the returned value includes
the period that delimits the extension, and if @var{filename} has no
extension, the value is @code{""}.
@end defun

@defun file-name-sans-extension filename
This function returns @var{filename} minus its extension, if any.  The
version/backup part, if present, is only removed if the file has an
extension.  For example,

@example
(file-name-sans-extension "foo.lose.c")
     @result{} "foo.lose"
(file-name-sans-extension "big.hack/foo")
     @result{} "big.hack/foo"
(file-name-sans-extension "/my/home/.emacs")
     @result{} "/my/home/.emacs"
(file-name-sans-extension "/my/home/.emacs.el")
     @result{} "/my/home/.emacs"
(file-name-sans-extension "~/foo.el.~3~")
     @result{} "~/foo"
(file-name-sans-extension "~/foo.~3~")
     @result{} "~/foo.~3~"
@end example

Note that the @samp{.~3~} in the two last examples is the backup part,
not an extension.
@end defun

@defun file-name-base &optional filename
This function is the composition of @code{file-name-sans-extension}
and @code{file-name-nondirectory}.  For example,

@example
(file-name-base "/my/home/foo.c")
    @result{} "foo"
@end example

The @var{filename} argument defaults to @code{buffer-file-name}.
@end defun

@node Relative File Names
@subsection Absolute and Relative File Names
@cindex absolute file name
@cindex relative file name

  All the directories in the file system form a tree starting at the
root directory.  A file name can specify all the directory names
starting from the root of the tree; then it is called an
@dfn{absolute} file name.  Or it can specify the position of the file
in the tree relative to a default directory; then it is called a
@dfn{relative} file name.  On Unix and GNU/Linux, an absolute file
name starts with a @samp{/} or a @samp{~}
(@pxref{abbreviate-file-name}), and a relative one does not.  On
MS-DOS and MS-Windows, an absolute file name starts with a slash or a
backslash, or with a drive specification @samp{@var{x}:/}, where
@var{x} is the @dfn{drive letter}.

@defun file-name-absolute-p filename
This function returns @code{t} if file @var{filename} is an absolute
file name, @code{nil} otherwise.

@example
@group
(file-name-absolute-p "~rms/foo")
     @result{} t
@end group
@group
(file-name-absolute-p "rms/foo")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@group
(file-name-absolute-p "/user/rms/foo")
     @result{} t
@end group
@end example
@end defun

  Given a possibly relative file name, you can convert it to an
absolute name using @code{expand-file-name} (@pxref{File Name
Expansion}).  This function converts absolute file names to relative
names:

@defun file-relative-name filename &optional directory
This function tries to return a relative name that is equivalent to
@var{filename}, assuming the result will be interpreted relative to
@var{directory} (an absolute directory name or directory file name).
If @var{directory} is omitted or @code{nil}, it defaults to the
current buffer's default directory.

On some operating systems, an absolute file name begins with a device
name.  On such systems, @var{filename} has no relative equivalent based
on @var{directory} if they start with two different device names.  In
this case, @code{file-relative-name} returns @var{filename} in absolute
form.

@example
(file-relative-name "/foo/bar" "/foo/")
     @result{} "bar"
(file-relative-name "/foo/bar" "/hack/")
     @result{} "../foo/bar"
@end example
@end defun

@node Directory Names
@subsection Directory Names
@cindex directory name
@cindex file name of directory

  A @dfn{directory name} is the name of a directory.  A directory is
actually a kind of file, so it has a file name, which is related to
the directory name but not identical to it.  (This is not quite the
same as the usual Unix terminology.)  These two different names for
the same entity are related by a syntactic transformation.  On GNU and
Unix systems, this is simple: a directory name ends in a slash,
whereas the directory's name as a file lacks that slash.  On MS-DOS
the relationship is more complicated.

  The difference between a directory name and its name as a file is
subtle but crucial.  When an Emacs variable or function argument is
described as being a directory name, a file name of a directory is not
acceptable.  When @code{file-name-directory} returns a string, that is
always a directory name.

  The following two functions convert between directory names and file
names.  They do nothing special with environment variable substitutions
such as @samp{$HOME}, and the constructs @samp{~}, @samp{.} and @samp{..}.

@defun file-name-as-directory filename
This function returns a string representing @var{filename} in a form
that the operating system will interpret as the name of a directory.  On
most systems, this means appending a slash to the string (if it does not
already end in one).

@example
@group
(file-name-as-directory "~rms/lewis")
     @result{} "~rms/lewis/"
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun directory-file-name dirname
This function returns a string representing @var{dirname} in a form that
the operating system will interpret as the name of a file.  On most
systems, this means removing the final slash (or backslash) from the
string.

@example
@group
(directory-file-name "~lewis/")
     @result{} "~lewis"
@end group
@end example
@end defun

  Given a directory name, you can combine it with a relative file name
using @code{concat}:

@example
(concat @var{dirname} @var{relfile})
@end example

@noindent
Be sure to verify that the file name is relative before doing that.
If you use an absolute file name, the results could be syntactically
invalid or refer to the wrong file.

  If you want to use a directory file name in making such a
combination, you must first convert it to a directory name using
@code{file-name-as-directory}:

@example
(concat (file-name-as-directory @var{dirfile}) @var{relfile})
@end example

@noindent
Don't try concatenating a slash by hand, as in

@example
;;; @r{Wrong!}
(concat @var{dirfile} "/" @var{relfile})
@end example

@noindent
because this is not portable.  Always use
@code{file-name-as-directory}.

  To convert a directory name to its abbreviation, use this
function:

@cindex file name abbreviations
@cindex abbreviated file names
@defun abbreviate-file-name filename
@anchor{abbreviate-file-name}
This function returns an abbreviated form of @var{filename}.  It
applies the abbreviations specified in @code{directory-abbrev-alist}
(@pxref{File Aliases,,File Aliases, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}),
then substitutes @samp{~} for the user's home directory if the
argument names a file in the home directory or one of its
subdirectories.  If the home directory is a root directory, it is not
replaced with @samp{~}, because this does not make the result shorter
on many systems.

You can use this function for directory names and for file names,
because it recognizes abbreviations even as part of the name.
@end defun

@node File Name Expansion
@subsection Functions that Expand Filenames
@cindex expansion of file names

  @dfn{Expanding} a file name means converting a relative file name to
an absolute one.  Since this is done relative to a default directory,
you must specify the default directory name as well as the file name
to be expanded.  It also involves expanding abbreviations like
@file{~/}
@ifnottex
(@pxref{abbreviate-file-name}),
@end ifnottex
and eliminating redundancies like @file{./} and @file{@var{name}/../}.

@defun expand-file-name filename &optional directory
This function converts @var{filename} to an absolute file name.  If
@var{directory} is supplied, it is the default directory to start with
if @var{filename} is relative.  (The value of @var{directory} should
itself be an absolute directory name or directory file name; it may
start with @samp{~}.)  Otherwise, the current buffer's value of
@code{default-directory} is used.  For example:

@example
@group
(expand-file-name "foo")
     @result{} "/xcssun/users/rms/lewis/foo"
@end group
@group
(expand-file-name "../foo")
     @result{} "/xcssun/users/rms/foo"
@end group
@group
(expand-file-name "foo" "/usr/spool/")
     @result{} "/usr/spool/foo"
@end group
@group
(expand-file-name "$HOME/foo")
     @result{} "/xcssun/users/rms/lewis/$HOME/foo"
@end group
@end example

If the part of the combined file name before the first slash is
@samp{~}, it expands to the value of the @env{HOME} environment
variable (usually your home directory).  If the part before the first
slash is @samp{~@var{user}} and if @var{user} is a valid login name,
it expands to @var{user}'s home directory.

Filenames containing @samp{.} or @samp{..} are simplified to their
canonical form:

@example
@group
(expand-file-name "bar/../foo")
     @result{} "/xcssun/users/rms/lewis/foo"
@end group
@end example

In some cases, a leading @samp{..} component can remain in the output:

@example
@group
(expand-file-name "../home" "/")
     @result{} "/../home"
@end group
@end example

@noindent
This is for the sake of filesystems that have the concept of a
``superroot'' above the root directory @file{/}.  On other filesystems,
@file{/../} is interpreted exactly the same as @file{/}.

Note that @code{expand-file-name} does @emph{not} expand environment
variables; only @code{substitute-in-file-name} does that.

Note also that @code{expand-file-name} does not follow symbolic links
at any level.  This results in a difference between the way
@code{file-truename} and @code{expand-file-name} treat @samp{..}.
Assuming that @samp{/tmp/bar} is a symbolic link to the directory
@samp{/tmp/foo/bar} we get:

@example
@group
(file-truename "/tmp/bar/../myfile")
     @result{} "/tmp/foo/myfile"
@end group
@group
(expand-file-name "/tmp/bar/../myfile")
     @result{} "/tmp/myfile"
@end group
@end example

If you may need to follow symbolic links preceding @samp{..}, you
should make sure to call @code{file-truename} without prior direct or
indirect calls to @code{expand-file-name}.  @xref{Truenames}.
@end defun

@defvar default-directory
The value of this buffer-local variable is the default directory for the
current buffer.  It should be an absolute directory name; it may start
with @samp{~}.  This variable is buffer-local in every buffer.

@code{expand-file-name} uses the default directory when its second
argument is @code{nil}.

The value is always a string ending with a slash.

@example
@group
default-directory
     @result{} "/user/lewis/manual/"
@end group
@end example
@end defvar

@defun substitute-in-file-name filename
@anchor{Definition of substitute-in-file-name}
This function replaces environment variable references in
@var{filename} with the environment variable values.  Following
standard Unix shell syntax, @samp{$} is the prefix to substitute an
environment variable value.  If the input contains @samp{$$}, that is
converted to @samp{$}; this gives the user a way to ``quote'' a
@samp{$}.

The environment variable name is the series of alphanumeric characters
(including underscores) that follow the @samp{$}.  If the character following
the @samp{$} is a @samp{@{}, then the variable name is everything up to the
matching @samp{@}}.

Calling @code{substitute-in-file-name} on output produced by
@code{substitute-in-file-name} tends to give incorrect results.  For
instance, use of @samp{$$} to quote a single @samp{$} won't work
properly, and @samp{$} in an environment variable's value could lead
to repeated substitution.  Therefore, programs that call this function
and put the output where it will be passed to this function need to
double all @samp{$} characters to prevent subsequent incorrect
results.

@c Wordy to avoid overfull hbox.  --rjc 15mar92
Here we assume that the environment variable @env{HOME}, which holds
the user's home directory name, has value @samp{/xcssun/users/rms}.

@example
@group
(substitute-in-file-name "$HOME/foo")
     @result{} "/xcssun/users/rms/foo"
@end group
@end example

After substitution, if a @samp{~} or a @samp{/} appears immediately
after another @samp{/}, the function discards everything before it (up
through the immediately preceding @samp{/}).

@example
@group
(substitute-in-file-name "bar/~/foo")
     @result{} "~/foo"
@end group
@group
(substitute-in-file-name "/usr/local/$HOME/foo")
     @result{} "/xcssun/users/rms/foo"
     ;; @r{@file{/usr/local/} has been discarded.}
@end group
@end example

@end defun

@node Unique File Names
@subsection Generating Unique File Names

  Some programs need to write temporary files.  Here is the usual way to
construct a name for such a file:

@example
(make-temp-file @var{name-of-application})
@end example

@noindent
The job of @code{make-temp-file} is to prevent two different users or
two different jobs from trying to use the exact same file name.

@defun make-temp-file prefix &optional dir-flag suffix
This function creates a temporary file and returns its name.  Emacs
creates the temporary file's name by adding to @var{prefix} some
random characters that are different in each Emacs job.  The result is
guaranteed to be a newly created empty file.  On MS-DOS, this function
can truncate the @var{string} prefix to fit into the 8+3 file-name
limits.  If @var{prefix} is a relative file name, it is expanded
against @code{temporary-file-directory}.

@example
@group
(make-temp-file "foo")
     @result{} "/tmp/foo232J6v"
@end group
@end example

When @code{make-temp-file} returns, the file has been created and is
empty.  At that point, you should write the intended contents into the
file.

If @var{dir-flag} is non-@code{nil}, @code{make-temp-file} creates an
empty directory instead of an empty file.  It returns the file name,
not the directory name, of that directory.  @xref{Directory Names}.

If @var{suffix} is non-@code{nil}, @code{make-temp-file} adds it at
the end of the file name.

To prevent conflicts among different libraries running in the same
Emacs, each Lisp program that uses @code{make-temp-file} should have its
own @var{prefix}.  The number added to the end of @var{prefix}
distinguishes between the same application running in different Emacs
jobs.  Additional added characters permit a large number of distinct
names even in one Emacs job.
@end defun

  The default directory for temporary files is controlled by the
variable @code{temporary-file-directory}.  This variable gives the user
a uniform way to specify the directory for all temporary files.  Some
programs use @code{small-temporary-file-directory} instead, if that is
non-@code{nil}.  To use it, you should expand the prefix against
the proper directory before calling @code{make-temp-file}.

@defopt temporary-file-directory
@cindex @env{TMPDIR} environment variable
@cindex @env{TMP} environment variable
@cindex @env{TEMP} environment variable
This variable specifies the directory name for creating temporary files.
Its value should be a directory name (@pxref{Directory Names}), but it
is good for Lisp programs to cope if the value is a directory's file
name instead.  Using the value as the second argument to
@code{expand-file-name} is a good way to achieve that.

The default value is determined in a reasonable way for your operating
system; it is based on the @env{TMPDIR}, @env{TMP} and @env{TEMP}
environment variables, with a fall-back to a system-dependent name if
none of these variables is defined.

Even if you do not use @code{make-temp-file} to create the temporary
file, you should still use this variable to decide which directory to
put the file in.  However, if you expect the file to be small, you
should use @code{small-temporary-file-directory} first if that is
non-@code{nil}.
@end defopt

@defopt small-temporary-file-directory
This variable specifies the directory name for
creating certain temporary files, which are likely to be small.

If you want to write a temporary file which is likely to be small, you
should compute the directory like this:

@example
(make-temp-file
  (expand-file-name @var{prefix}
                    (or small-temporary-file-directory
                        temporary-file-directory)))
@end example
@end defopt

@defun make-temp-name base-name
This function generates a string that can be used as a unique file
name.  The name starts with @var{base-name}, and has several random
characters appended to it, which are different in each Emacs job.  It
is like @code{make-temp-file} except that (i) it just constructs a
name, and does not create a file, and (ii) @var{base-name} should be
an absolute file name (on MS-DOS, this function can truncate
@var{base-name} to fit into the 8+3 file-name limits).

@strong{Warning:} In most cases, you should not use this function; use
@code{make-temp-file} instead!  This function is susceptible to a race
condition, between the @code{make-temp-name} call and the creation of
the file, which in some cases may cause a security hole.
@end defun

@node File Name Completion
@subsection File Name Completion
@cindex file name completion subroutines
@cindex completion, file name

  This section describes low-level subroutines for completing a file
name.  For higher level functions, see @ref{Reading File Names}.

@defun file-name-all-completions partial-filename directory
This function returns a list of all possible completions for a file
whose name starts with @var{partial-filename} in directory
@var{directory}.  The order of the completions is the order of the files
in the directory, which is unpredictable and conveys no useful
information.

The argument @var{partial-filename} must be a file name containing no
directory part and no slash (or backslash on some systems).  The current
buffer's default directory is prepended to @var{directory}, if
@var{directory} is not absolute.

In the following example, suppose that @file{~rms/lewis} is the current
default directory, and has five files whose names begin with @samp{f}:
@file{foo}, @file{file~}, @file{file.c}, @file{file.c.~1~}, and
@file{file.c.~2~}.@refill

@example
@group
(file-name-all-completions "f" "")
     @result{} ("foo" "file~" "file.c.~2~"
                "file.c.~1~" "file.c")
@end group

@group
(file-name-all-completions "fo" "")
     @result{} ("foo")
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun file-name-completion filename directory &optional predicate
This function completes the file name @var{filename} in directory
@var{directory}.  It returns the longest prefix common to all file names
in directory @var{directory} that start with @var{filename}.  If
@var{predicate} is non-@code{nil} then it ignores possible completions
that don't satisfy @var{predicate}, after calling that function
with one argument, the expanded absolute file name.

If only one match exists and @var{filename} matches it exactly, the
function returns @code{t}.  The function returns @code{nil} if directory
@var{directory} contains no name starting with @var{filename}.

In the following example, suppose that the current default directory
has five files whose names begin with @samp{f}: @file{foo},
@file{file~}, @file{file.c}, @file{file.c.~1~}, and
@file{file.c.~2~}.@refill

@example
@group
(file-name-completion "fi" "")
     @result{} "file"
@end group

@group
(file-name-completion "file.c.~1" "")
     @result{} "file.c.~1~"
@end group

@group
(file-name-completion "file.c.~1~" "")
     @result{} t
@end group

@group
(file-name-completion "file.c.~3" "")
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defopt completion-ignored-extensions
@code{file-name-completion} usually ignores file names that end in any
string in this list.  It does not ignore them when all the possible
completions end in one of these suffixes.  This variable has no effect
on @code{file-name-all-completions}.@refill

A typical value might look like this:

@example
@group
completion-ignored-extensions
     @result{} (".o" ".elc" "~" ".dvi")
@end group
@end example

If an element of @code{completion-ignored-extensions} ends in a slash
@samp{/}, it signals a directory.  The elements which do @emph{not} end
in a slash will never match a directory; thus, the above value will not
filter out a directory named @file{foo.elc}.
@end defopt

@node Standard File Names
@subsection Standard File Names

  Sometimes, an Emacs Lisp program needs to specify a standard file
name for a particular use---typically, to hold configuration data
specified by the current user.  Usually, such files should be located
in the directory specified by @code{user-emacs-directory}, which is
@file{~/.emacs.d} by default (@pxref{Init File}).  For example, abbrev
definitions are stored by default in @file{~/.emacs.d/abbrev_defs}.
The easiest way to specify such a file name is to use the function
@code{locate-user-emacs-file}.

@defun locate-user-emacs-file base-name &optional old-name
This function returns an absolute file name for an Emacs-specific
configuration or data file.  The argument @file{base-name} should be a
relative file name.  The return value is the absolute name of a file
in the directory specified by @code{user-emacs-directory}; if that
directory does not exist, this function creates it.

If the optional argument @var{old-name} is non-@code{nil}, it
specifies a file in the user's home directory,
@file{~/@var{old-name}}.  If such a file exists, the return value is
the absolute name of that file, instead of the file specified by
@var{base-name}.  This argument is intended to be used by Emacs
packages to provide backward compatibility.  For instance, prior to
the introduction of @code{user-emacs-directory}, the abbrev file was
located in @file{~/.abbrev_defs}.  Here is the definition of
@code{abbrev-file-name}:

@example
(defcustom abbrev-file-name
  (locate-user-emacs-file "abbrev_defs" ".abbrev_defs")
  "Default name of file from which to read abbrevs."
  @dots{}
  :type 'file)
@end example
@end defun

  A lower-level function for standardizing file names, which
@code{locate-user-emacs-file} uses as a subroutine, is
@code{convert-standard-filename}.

@defun convert-standard-filename filename
This function returns a file name based on @var{filename}, which fits
the conventions of the current operating system.

On GNU and Unix systems, this simply returns @var{filename}.  On other
operating systems, it may enforce system-specific file name
conventions; for example, on MS-DOS this function performs a variety
of changes to enforce MS-DOS file name limitations, including
converting any leading @samp{.} to @samp{_} and truncating to three
characters after the @samp{.}.

The recommended way to use this function is to specify a name which
fits the conventions of GNU and Unix systems, and pass it to
@code{convert-standard-filename}.
@end defun

@node Contents of Directories
@section Contents of Directories
@cindex directory-oriented functions
@cindex file names in directory

  A directory is a kind of file that contains other files entered under
various names.  Directories are a feature of the file system.

  Emacs can list the names of the files in a directory as a Lisp list,
or display the names in a buffer using the @code{ls} shell command.  In
the latter case, it can optionally display information about each file,
depending on the options passed to the @code{ls} command.

@defun directory-files directory &optional full-name match-regexp nosort
This function returns a list of the names of the files in the directory
@var{directory}.  By default, the list is in alphabetical order.

If @var{full-name} is non-@code{nil}, the function returns the files'
absolute file names.  Otherwise, it returns the names relative to
the specified directory.

If @var{match-regexp} is non-@code{nil}, this function returns only
those file names that contain a match for that regular expression---the
other file names are excluded from the list.  On case-insensitive
filesystems, the regular expression matching is case-insensitive.

@c Emacs 19 feature
If @var{nosort} is non-@code{nil}, @code{directory-files} does not sort
the list, so you get the file names in no particular order.  Use this if
you want the utmost possible speed and don't care what order the files
are processed in.  If the order of processing is visible to the user,
then the user will probably be happier if you do sort the names.

@example
@group
(directory-files "~lewis")
     @result{} ("#foo#" "#foo.el#" "." ".."
         "dired-mods.el" "files.texi"
         "files.texi.~1~")
@end group
@end example

An error is signaled if @var{directory} is not the name of a directory
that can be read.
@end defun

@defun directory-files-and-attributes directory &optional full-name match-regexp nosort id-format
This is similar to @code{directory-files} in deciding which files
to report on and how to report their names.  However, instead
of returning a list of file names, it returns for each file a
list @code{(@var{filename} . @var{attributes})}, where @var{attributes}
is what @code{file-attributes} would return for that file.
The optional argument @var{id-format} has the same meaning as the
corresponding argument to @code{file-attributes} (@pxref{Definition
of file-attributes}).
@end defun

@defun file-expand-wildcards pattern &optional full
This function expands the wildcard pattern @var{pattern}, returning
a list of file names that match it.

If @var{pattern} is written as an absolute file name,
the values are absolute also.

If @var{pattern} is written as a relative file name, it is interpreted
relative to the current default directory.  The file names returned are
normally also relative to the current default directory.  However, if
@var{full} is non-@code{nil}, they are absolute.
@end defun

@defun insert-directory file switches &optional wildcard full-directory-p
This function inserts (in the current buffer) a directory listing for
directory @var{file}, formatted with @code{ls} according to
@var{switches}.  It leaves point after the inserted text.
@var{switches} may be a string of options, or a list of strings
representing individual options.

The argument @var{file} may be either a directory name or a file
specification including wildcard characters.  If @var{wildcard} is
non-@code{nil}, that means treat @var{file} as a file specification with
wildcards.

If @var{full-directory-p} is non-@code{nil}, that means the directory
listing is expected to show the full contents of a directory.  You
should specify @code{t} when @var{file} is a directory and switches do
not contain @samp{-d}.  (The @samp{-d} option to @code{ls} says to
describe a directory itself as a file, rather than showing its
contents.)

On most systems, this function works by running a directory listing
program whose name is in the variable @code{insert-directory-program}.
If @var{wildcard} is non-@code{nil}, it also runs the shell specified by
@code{shell-file-name}, to expand the wildcards.

MS-DOS and MS-Windows systems usually lack the standard Unix program
@code{ls}, so this function emulates the standard Unix program @code{ls}
with Lisp code.

As a technical detail, when @var{switches} contains the long
@samp{--dired} option, @code{insert-directory} treats it specially,
for the sake of dired.  However, the normally equivalent short
@samp{-D} option is just passed on to @code{insert-directory-program},
as any other option.
@end defun

@defvar insert-directory-program
This variable's value is the program to run to generate a directory listing
for the function @code{insert-directory}.  It is ignored on systems
which generate the listing with Lisp code.
@end defvar

@node Create/Delete Dirs
@section Creating, Copying and Deleting Directories
@cindex creating, copying and deleting directories
@c Emacs 19 features

  Most Emacs Lisp file-manipulation functions get errors when used on
files that are directories.  For example, you cannot delete a directory
with @code{delete-file}.  These special functions exist to create and
delete directories.

@findex mkdir
@deffn Command make-directory dirname &optional parents
This command creates a directory named @var{dirname}.  If
@var{parents} is non-@code{nil}, as is always the case in an
interactive call, that means to create the parent directories first,
if they don't already exist.

@code{mkdir} is an alias for this.
@end deffn

@deffn Command copy-directory dirname newname &optional keep-time parents copy-contents
This command copies the directory named @var{dirname} to
@var{newname}.  If @var{newname} names an existing directory,
@var{dirname} will be copied to a subdirectory there.

It always sets the file modes of the copied files to match the
corresponding original file.

The third argument @var{keep-time} non-@code{nil} means to preserve the
modification time of the copied files.  A prefix arg makes
@var{keep-time} non-@code{nil}.

The fourth argument @var{parents} says whether to
create parent directories if they don't exist.  Interactively,
this happens by default.

The fifth argument @var{copy-contents}, if non-@code{nil}, means to
copy the contents of @var{dirname} directly into @var{newname} if the
latter is an existing directory, instead of copying @var{dirname} into
it as a subdirectory.
@end deffn

@cindex trash
@vindex delete-by-moving-to-trash
@deffn Command delete-directory dirname &optional recursive trash
This command deletes the directory named @var{dirname}.  The function
@code{delete-file} does not work for files that are directories; you
must use @code{delete-directory} for them.  If @var{recursive} is
@code{nil}, and the directory contains any files,
@code{delete-directory} signals an error.

@code{delete-directory} only follows symbolic links at the level of
parent directories.

If the optional argument @var{trash} is non-@code{nil} and the
variable @code{delete-by-moving-to-trash} is non-@code{nil}, this
command moves the file into the system Trash instead of deleting it.
@xref{Misc File Ops,,Miscellaneous File Operations, emacs, The GNU
Emacs Manual}.  When called interactively, @var{trash} is @code{t} if
no prefix argument is given, and @code{nil} otherwise.
@end deffn

@node Magic File Names
@section Making Certain File Names ``Magic''
@cindex magic file names

  You can implement special handling for certain file names.  This is
called making those names @dfn{magic}.  The principal use for this
feature is in implementing remote file names (@pxref{Remote Files,,
Remote Files, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}).

  To define a kind of magic file name, you must supply a regular
expression to define the class of names (all those that match the
regular expression), plus a handler that implements all the primitive
Emacs file operations for file names that match.

@vindex file-name-handler-alist
  The variable @code{file-name-handler-alist} holds a list of handlers,
together with regular expressions that determine when to apply each
handler.  Each element has this form:

@example
(@var{regexp} . @var{handler})
@end example

@noindent
All the Emacs primitives for file access and file name transformation
check the given file name against @code{file-name-handler-alist}.  If
the file name matches @var{regexp}, the primitives handle that file by
calling @var{handler}.

  The first argument given to @var{handler} is the name of the
primitive, as a symbol; the remaining arguments are the arguments that
were passed to that primitive.  (The first of these arguments is most
often the file name itself.)  For example, if you do this:

@example
(file-exists-p @var{filename})
@end example

@noindent
and @var{filename} has handler @var{handler}, then @var{handler} is
called like this:

@example
(funcall @var{handler} 'file-exists-p @var{filename})
@end example

  When a function takes two or more arguments that must be file names,
it checks each of those names for a handler.  For example, if you do
this:

@example
(expand-file-name @var{filename} @var{dirname})
@end example

@noindent
then it checks for a handler for @var{filename} and then for a handler
for @var{dirname}.  In either case, the @var{handler} is called like
this:

@example
(funcall @var{handler} 'expand-file-name @var{filename} @var{dirname})
@end example

@noindent
The @var{handler} then needs to figure out whether to handle
@var{filename} or @var{dirname}.

  If the specified file name matches more than one handler, the one
whose match starts last in the file name gets precedence.  This rule
is chosen so that handlers for jobs such as uncompression are handled
first, before handlers for jobs such as remote file access.

  Here are the operations that a magic file name handler gets to handle:

@ifnottex
@noindent
@code{access-file}, @code{add-name-to-file},
@code{byte-compiler-base-file-name},@*
@code{copy-directory}, @code{copy-file},
@code{delete-directory}, @code{delete-file},
@code{diff-latest-backup-file},
@code{directory-file-name},
@code{directory-files},
@code{directory-files-and-attributes},
@code{dired-compress-file}, @code{dired-uncache},@*
@code{expand-file-name},
@code{file-accessible-directory-p},
@code{file-attributes},
@code{file-directory-p},
@code{file-executable-p}, @code{file-exists-p},
@code{file-local-copy}, @code{file-remote-p},
@code{file-modes}, @code{file-name-all-completions},
@code{file-name-as-directory},
@code{file-name-completion},
@code{file-name-directory},
@code{file-name-nondirectory},
@code{file-name-sans-versions}, @code{file-newer-than-file-p},
@code{file-ownership-preserved-p},
@code{file-readable-p}, @code{file-regular-p}, @code{file-in-directory-p},
@code{file-symlink-p}, @code{file-truename}, @code{file-writable-p},
@code{file-equal-p}, @code{find-backup-file-name},
@c Not sure why it was here:   @code{find-file-noselect},@*
@code{get-file-buffer},
@code{insert-directory},
@code{insert-file-contents},@*
@code{load},
@code{make-auto-save-file-name},
@code{make-directory},
@code{make-directory-internal},
@code{make-symbolic-link},@*
@code{process-file},
@code{rename-file}, @code{set-file-modes}, @code{set-file-times},
@code{set-visited-file-modtime}, @code{shell-command},
@code{start-file-process},
@code{substitute-in-file-name},@*
@code{unhandled-file-name-directory},
@code{vc-registered},
@code{verify-visited-file-modtime},@*
@code{write-region}.
@end ifnottex
@iftex
@noindent
@flushleft
@code{access-file}, @code{add-name-to-file},
@code{byte-com@discretionary{}{}{}piler-base-file-name},
@code{copy-directory}, @code{copy-file},
@code{delete-directory}, @code{delete-file},
@code{diff-latest-backup-file},
@code{directory-file-name},
@code{directory-files},
@code{directory-files-and-at@discretionary{}{}{}tributes},
@code{dired-compress-file}, @code{dired-uncache},
@code{expand-file-name},
@code{file-accessible-direc@discretionary{}{}{}tory-p},
@code{file-attributes},
@code{file-direct@discretionary{}{}{}ory-p},
@code{file-executable-p}, @code{file-exists-p},
@code{file-local-copy}, @code{file-remote-p},
@code{file-modes}, @code{file-name-all-completions},
@code{file-name-as-directory},
@code{file-name-completion},
@code{file-name-directory},
@code{file-name-nondirec@discretionary{}{}{}tory},
@code{file-name-sans-versions}, @code{file-newer-than-file-p},
@code{file-ownership-pre@discretionary{}{}{}served-p},
@code{file-readable-p}, @code{file-regular-p}, @code{file-symlink-p},
@code{file-truename}, @code{file-writable-p},
@code{find-backup-file-name},
@c Not sure why it was here:   @code{find-file-noselect},
@code{get-file-buffer},
@code{insert-directory},
@code{insert-file-contents},
@code{load}, @code{make-direc@discretionary{}{}{}tory},
@code{make-direc@discretionary{}{}{}tory-internal},
@code{make-symbolic-link},
@code{process-file},
@code{rename-file}, @code{set-file-modes},
@code{set-visited-file-modtime}, @code{shell-command},
@code{start-file-process},
@code{substitute-in-file-name},
@code{unhandled-file-name-directory},
@code{vc-regis@discretionary{}{}{}tered},
@code{verify-visited-file-modtime},
@code{write-region}.
@end flushleft
@end iftex

  Handlers for @code{insert-file-contents} typically need to clear the
buffer's modified flag, with @code{(set-buffer-modified-p nil)}, if the
@var{visit} argument is non-@code{nil}.  This also has the effect of
unlocking the buffer if it is locked.

  The handler function must handle all of the above operations, and
possibly others to be added in the future.  It need not implement all
these operations itself---when it has nothing special to do for a
certain operation, it can reinvoke the primitive, to handle the
operation ``in the usual way''.  It should always reinvoke the primitive
for an operation it does not recognize.  Here's one way to do this:

@smallexample
(defun my-file-handler (operation &rest args)
  ;; @r{First check for the specific operations}
  ;; @r{that we have special handling for.}
  (cond ((eq operation 'insert-file-contents) @dots{})
        ((eq operation 'write-region) @dots{})
        @dots{}
        ;; @r{Handle any operation we don't know about.}
        (t (let ((inhibit-file-name-handlers
                  (cons 'my-file-handler
                        (and (eq inhibit-file-name-operation operation)
                             inhibit-file-name-handlers)))
                 (inhibit-file-name-operation operation))
             (apply operation args)))))
@end smallexample

  When a handler function decides to call the ordinary Emacs primitive for
the operation at hand, it needs to prevent the primitive from calling
the same handler once again, thus leading to an infinite recursion.  The
example above shows how to do this, with the variables
@code{inhibit-file-name-handlers} and
@code{inhibit-file-name-operation}.  Be careful to use them exactly as
shown above; the details are crucial for proper behavior in the case of
multiple handlers, and for operations that have two file names that may
each have handlers.

@kindex safe-magic (@r{property})
  Handlers that don't really do anything special for actual access to the
file---such as the ones that implement completion of host names for
remote file names---should have a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-magic}
property.  For instance, Emacs normally ``protects'' directory names
it finds in @code{PATH} from becoming magic, if they look like magic
file names, by prefixing them with @samp{/:}.  But if the handler that
would be used for them has a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-magic}
property, the @samp{/:} is not added.

@kindex operations (@r{property})
  A file name handler can have an @code{operations} property to
declare which operations it handles in a nontrivial way.  If this
property has a non-@code{nil} value, it should be a list of
operations; then only those operations will call the handler.  This
avoids inefficiency, but its main purpose is for autoloaded handler
functions, so that they won't be loaded except when they have real
work to do.

  Simply deferring all operations to the usual primitives does not
work.  For instance, if the file name handler applies to
@code{file-exists-p}, then it must handle @code{load} itself, because
the usual @code{load} code won't work properly in that case.  However,
if the handler uses the @code{operations} property to say it doesn't
handle @code{file-exists-p}, then it need not handle @code{load}
nontrivially.

@defvar inhibit-file-name-handlers
This variable holds a list of handlers whose use is presently inhibited
for a certain operation.
@end defvar

@defvar inhibit-file-name-operation
The operation for which certain handlers are presently inhibited.
@end defvar

@defun find-file-name-handler file operation
This function returns the handler function for file name @var{file},
or @code{nil} if there is none.  The argument @var{operation} should
be the operation to be performed on the file---the value you will pass
to the handler as its first argument when you call it.  If
@var{operation} equals @code{inhibit-file-name-operation}, or if it is
not found in the @code{operations} property of the handler, this
function returns @code{nil}.
@end defun

@defun file-local-copy filename
This function copies file @var{filename} to an ordinary non-magic file
on the local machine, if it isn't on the local machine already.  Magic
file names should handle the @code{file-local-copy} operation if they
refer to files on other machines.  A magic file name that is used for
other purposes than remote file access should not handle
@code{file-local-copy}; then this function will treat the file as
local.

If @var{filename} is local, whether magic or not, this function does
nothing and returns @code{nil}.  Otherwise it returns the file name
of the local copy file.
@end defun

@defun file-remote-p filename &optional identification connected
This function tests whether @var{filename} is a remote file.  If
@var{filename} is local (not remote), the return value is @code{nil}.
If @var{filename} is indeed remote, the return value is a string that
identifies the remote system.

This identifier string can include a host name and a user name, as
well as characters designating the method used to access the remote
system.  For example, the remote identifier string for the filename
@code{/sudo::/some/file} is @code{/sudo:root@@localhost:}.

If @code{file-remote-p} returns the same identifier for two different
filenames, that means they are stored on the same file system and can
be accessed locally with respect to each other.  This means, for
example, that it is possible to start a remote process accessing both
files at the same time.  Implementers of file handlers need to ensure
this principle is valid.

@var{identification} specifies which part of the identifier shall be
returned as string.  @var{identification} can be the symbol
@code{method}, @code{user} or @code{host}; any other value is handled
like @code{nil} and means to return the complete identifier string.
In the example above, the remote @code{user} identifier string would
be @code{root}.

If @var{connected} is non-@code{nil}, this function returns @code{nil}
even if @var{filename} is remote, if Emacs has no network connection
to its host.  This is useful when you want to avoid the delay of
making connections when they don't exist.
@end defun

@defun unhandled-file-name-directory filename
This function returns the name of a directory that is not magic.  It
uses the directory part of @var{filename} if that is not magic.  For a
magic file name, it invokes the file name handler, which therefore
decides what value to return.  If @var{filename} is not accessible
from a local process, then the file name handler should indicate it by
returning @code{nil}.

This is useful for running a subprocess; every subprocess must have a
non-magic directory to serve as its current directory, and this function
is a good way to come up with one.
@end defun

@defopt remote-file-name-inhibit-cache
The attributes of remote files can be cached for better performance.  If
they are changed outside of Emacs's control, the cached values become
invalid, and must be reread.

When this variable is set to @code{nil}, cached values are never
expired.  Use this setting with caution, only if you are sure nothing
other than Emacs ever changes the remote files.  If it is set to
@code{t}, cached values are never used.  This is the safest value, but
could result in performance degradation.

A compromise is to set it to a positive number.  This means that
cached values are used for that amount of seconds since they were
cached.  If a remote file is checked regularly, it might be a good
idea to let-bind this variable to a value less than the time period
between consecutive checks.  For example:

@example
(defun display-time-file-nonempty-p (file)
  (let ((remote-file-name-inhibit-cache
         (- display-time-interval 5)))
    (and (file-exists-p file)
         (< 0 (nth 7 (file-attributes
                       (file-chase-links file)))))))
@end example
@end defopt

@node Format Conversion
@section File Format Conversion

@cindex file format conversion
@cindex encoding file formats
@cindex decoding file formats
@cindex text properties in files
@cindex saving text properties
  Emacs performs several steps to convert the data in a buffer (text,
text properties, and possibly other information) to and from a
representation suitable for storing into a file.  This section describes
the fundamental functions that perform this @dfn{format conversion},
namely @code{insert-file-contents} for reading a file into a buffer,
and @code{write-region} for writing a buffer into a file.

@menu
* Overview: Format Conversion Overview.     @code{insert-file-contents} and @code{write-region}.
* Round-Trip: Format Conversion Round-Trip. Using @code{format-alist}.
* Piecemeal: Format Conversion Piecemeal.   Specifying non-paired conversion.
@end menu

@node Format Conversion Overview
@subsection Overview
@noindent
The function @code{insert-file-contents}:

@itemize
@item initially, inserts bytes from the file into the buffer;
@item decodes bytes to characters as appropriate;
@item processes formats as defined by entries in @code{format-alist}; and
@item calls functions in @code{after-insert-file-functions}.
@end itemize

@noindent
The function @code{write-region}:

@itemize
@item initially, calls functions in @code{write-region-annotate-functions};
@item processes formats as defined by entries in @code{format-alist};
@item encodes characters to bytes as appropriate; and
@item modifies the file with the bytes.
@end itemize

  This shows the symmetry of the lowest-level operations; reading and
writing handle things in opposite order.  The rest of this section
describes the two facilities surrounding the three variables named
above, as well as some related functions.  @ref{Coding Systems}, for
details on character encoding and decoding.

@node Format Conversion Round-Trip
@subsection Round-Trip Specification

  The most general of the two facilities is controlled by the variable
@code{format-alist}, a list of @dfn{file format} specifications, which
describe textual representations used in files for the data in an Emacs
buffer.  The descriptions for reading and writing are paired, which is
why we call this ``round-trip'' specification
(@pxref{Format Conversion Piecemeal}, for non-paired specification).

@defvar format-alist
This list contains one format definition for each defined file format.
Each format definition is a list of this form:

@example
(@var{name} @var{doc-string} @var{regexp} @var{from-fn} @var{to-fn} @var{modify} @var{mode-fn} @var{preserve})
@end example
@end defvar

@cindex format definition
@noindent
Here is what the elements in a format definition mean:

@table @var
@item name
The name of this format.

@item doc-string
A documentation string for the format.

@item regexp
A regular expression which is used to recognize files represented in
this format.  If @code{nil}, the format is never applied automatically.

@item from-fn
A shell command or function to decode data in this format (to convert
file data into the usual Emacs data representation).

A shell command is represented as a string; Emacs runs the command as a
filter to perform the conversion.

If @var{from-fn} is a function, it is called with two arguments, @var{begin}
and @var{end}, which specify the part of the buffer it should convert.
It should convert the text by editing it in place.  Since this can
change the length of the text, @var{from-fn} should return the modified
end position.

One responsibility of @var{from-fn} is to make sure that the beginning
of the file no longer matches @var{regexp}.  Otherwise it is likely to
get called again.

@item to-fn
A shell command or function to encode data in this format---that is, to
convert the usual Emacs data representation into this format.

If @var{to-fn} is a string, it is a shell command; Emacs runs the
command as a filter to perform the conversion.

If @var{to-fn} is a function, it is called with three arguments:
@var{begin} and @var{end}, which specify the part of the buffer it
should convert, and @var{buffer}, which specifies which buffer.  There
are two ways it can do the conversion:

@itemize @bullet
@item
By editing the buffer in place.  In this case, @var{to-fn} should
return the end-position of the range of text, as modified.

@item
By returning a list of annotations.  This is a list of elements of the
form @code{(@var{position} . @var{string})}, where @var{position} is an
integer specifying the relative position in the text to be written, and
@var{string} is the annotation to add there.  The list must be sorted in
order of position when @var{to-fn} returns it.

When @code{write-region} actually writes the text from the buffer to the
file, it intermixes the specified annotations at the corresponding
positions.  All this takes place without modifying the buffer.
@end itemize

@item modify
A flag, @code{t} if the encoding function modifies the buffer, and
@code{nil} if it works by returning a list of annotations.

@item mode-fn
A minor-mode function to call after visiting a file converted from this
format.  The function is called with one argument, the integer 1;
that tells a minor-mode function to enable the mode.

@item preserve
A flag, @code{t} if @code{format-write-file} should not remove this format
from @code{buffer-file-format}.
@end table

The function @code{insert-file-contents} automatically recognizes file
formats when it reads the specified file.  It checks the text of the
beginning of the file against the regular expressions of the format
definitions, and if it finds a match, it calls the decoding function for
that format.  Then it checks all the known formats over again.
It keeps checking them until none of them is applicable.

Visiting a file, with @code{find-file-noselect} or the commands that use
it, performs conversion likewise (because it calls
@code{insert-file-contents}); it also calls the mode function for each
format that it decodes.  It stores a list of the format names in the
buffer-local variable @code{buffer-file-format}.

@defvar buffer-file-format
This variable states the format of the visited file.  More precisely,
this is a list of the file format names that were decoded in the course
of visiting the current buffer's file.  It is always buffer-local in all
buffers.
@end defvar

When @code{write-region} writes data into a file, it first calls the
encoding functions for the formats listed in @code{buffer-file-format},
in the order of appearance in the list.

@deffn Command format-write-file file format &optional confirm
This command writes the current buffer contents into the file @var{file}
in a format based on @var{format}, which is a list of format names.  It
constructs the actual format starting from @var{format}, then appending
any elements from the value of @code{buffer-file-format} with a
non-@code{nil} @var{preserve} flag (see above), if they are not already
present in @var{format}.  It then updates @code{buffer-file-format} with
this format, making it the default for future saves.  Except for the
@var{format} argument, this command is similar to @code{write-file}.  In
particular, @var{confirm} has the same meaning and interactive treatment
as the corresponding argument to @code{write-file}.  @xref{Definition of
write-file}.
@end deffn

@deffn Command format-find-file file format
This command finds the file @var{file}, converting it according to
format @var{format}.  It also makes @var{format} the default if the
buffer is saved later.

The argument @var{format} is a list of format names.  If @var{format} is
@code{nil}, no conversion takes place.  Interactively, typing just
@key{RET} for @var{format} specifies @code{nil}.
@end deffn

@deffn Command format-insert-file file format &optional beg end
This command inserts the contents of file @var{file}, converting it
according to format @var{format}.  If @var{beg} and @var{end} are
non-@code{nil}, they specify which part of the file to read, as in
@code{insert-file-contents} (@pxref{Reading from Files}).

The return value is like what @code{insert-file-contents} returns: a
list of the absolute file name and the length of the data inserted
(after conversion).

The argument @var{format} is a list of format names.  If @var{format} is
@code{nil}, no conversion takes place.  Interactively, typing just
@key{RET} for @var{format} specifies @code{nil}.
@end deffn

@defvar buffer-auto-save-file-format
This variable specifies the format to use for auto-saving.  Its value is
a list of format names, just like the value of
@code{buffer-file-format}; however, it is used instead of
@code{buffer-file-format} for writing auto-save files.  If the value
is @code{t}, the default, auto-saving uses the same format as a
regular save in the same buffer.  This variable is always buffer-local
in all buffers.
@end defvar

@node Format Conversion Piecemeal
@subsection Piecemeal Specification

  In contrast to the round-trip specification described in the previous
subsection (@pxref{Format Conversion Round-Trip}), you can use the variables
@code{after-insert-file-functions} and @code{write-region-annotate-functions}
to separately control the respective reading and writing conversions.

  Conversion starts with one representation and produces another
representation.  When there is only one conversion to do, there is no
conflict about what to start with.  However, when there are multiple
conversions involved, conflict may arise when two conversions need to
start with the same data.

  This situation is best understood in the context of converting text
properties during @code{write-region}.  For example, the character at
position 42 in a buffer is @samp{X} with a text property @code{foo}.  If
the conversion for @code{foo} is done by inserting into the buffer, say,
@samp{FOO:}, then that changes the character at position 42 from
@samp{X} to @samp{F}.  The next conversion will start with the wrong
data straight away.

  To avoid conflict, cooperative conversions do not modify the buffer,
but instead specify @dfn{annotations}, a list of elements of the form
@code{(@var{position} . @var{string})}, sorted in order of increasing
@var{position}.

  If there is more than one conversion, @code{write-region} merges their
annotations destructively into one sorted list.  Later, when the text
from the buffer is actually written to the file, it intermixes the
specified annotations at the corresponding positions.  All this takes
place without modifying the buffer.

@c ??? What about ``overriding'' conversions like those allowed
@c ??? for `write-region-annotate-functions', below?  --ttn

  In contrast, when reading, the annotations intermixed with the text
are handled immediately.  @code{insert-file-contents} sets point to
the beginning of some text to be converted, then calls the conversion
functions with the length of that text.  These functions should always
return with point at the beginning of the inserted text.  This
approach makes sense for reading because annotations removed by the
first converter can't be mistakenly processed by a later converter.
Each conversion function should scan for the annotations it
recognizes, remove the annotation, modify the buffer text (to set a
text property, for example), and return the updated length of the
text, as it stands after those changes.  The value returned by one
function becomes the argument to the next function.

@defvar write-region-annotate-functions
A list of functions for @code{write-region} to call.  Each function in
the list is called with two arguments: the start and end of the region
to be written.  These functions should not alter the contents of the
buffer.  Instead, they should return annotations.

As a special case, a function may return with a different buffer
current.  Emacs takes this to mean that the current buffer contains
altered text to be output.  It therefore changes the @var{start} and
@var{end} arguments of the @code{write-region} call, giving them the
values of @code{point-min} and @code{point-max} in the new buffer,
respectively.  It also discards all previous annotations, because they
should have been dealt with by this function.
@end defvar

@defvar write-region-post-annotation-function
The value of this variable, if non-@code{nil}, should be a function.
This function is called, with no arguments, after @code{write-region}
has completed.

If any function in @code{write-region-annotate-functions} returns with
a different buffer current, Emacs calls
@code{write-region-post-annotation-function} more than once.  Emacs
calls it with the last buffer that was current, and again with the
buffer before that, and so on back to the original buffer.

Thus, a function in @code{write-region-annotate-functions} can create
a buffer, give this variable the local value of @code{kill-buffer} in
that buffer, set up the buffer with altered text, and make the buffer
current.  The buffer will be killed after @code{write-region} is done.
@end defvar

@defvar after-insert-file-functions
Each function in this list is called by @code{insert-file-contents}
with one argument, the number of characters inserted, and with point
at the beginning of the inserted text.  Each function should leave
point unchanged, and return the new character count describing the
inserted text as modified by the function.
@c ??? The docstring mentions a handler from `file-name-handler-alist'
@c     "intercepting" `insert-file-contents'.  Hmmm.  --ttn
@end defvar

  We invite users to write Lisp programs to store and retrieve text
properties in files, using these hooks, and thus to experiment with
various data formats and find good ones.  Eventually we hope users
will produce good, general extensions we can install in Emacs.

  We suggest not trying to handle arbitrary Lisp objects as text property
names or values---because a program that general is probably difficult
to write, and slow.  Instead, choose a set of possible data types that
are reasonably flexible, and not too hard to encode.