path: root/ghc/docs/storage-mgt/sm.tex

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{code,a4wide}

\usepackage{graphics,epsfig,epic,eepic}

\setlength{\parskip}{0.25cm}
\setlength{\parsep}{0.25cm}
\setlength{\topsep}{0cm}
\setlength{\parindent}{0cm}
\renewcommand{\textfraction}{0.2}
\renewcommand{\floatpagefraction}{0.7}


% Terminology
\newcommand{\block}{block}
\newcommand{\Block}{Block}
\newcommand{\segment}{segment}
\newcommand{\Segment}{Segment}
\newcommand{\step}{step}
\newcommand{\Step}{Step}

\newcommand{\note}[1]{{\em $\spadesuit$ #1}}

\begin{document}
\title{The GHC Storage Manager}
\author{Simon Peyton-Jones and Sungwoo Park}

\makeatactive
\maketitle
\section{Introduction}

This document describes the details of the GHC storage manager, including
the interface and implementation of each of its components.

\section{Goals}

Storage management goals are:
\begin{itemize}
\item Generational collection, supporting multiple generations.
\item The ability to pin the allocation
area into a few pages that we hope will fit entirely in the cache.
\item Allows objects to age within a generation before getting promoted.
\item Heap can grow as needed, rather than having to be pre-sized
  by the programmer.
\item We support mark/sweep/compact collection for older generations.
This is a Good Thing when the live memory approaches the available
physical memory, because it reduces paging.
\item Little OS support needed.  No @mmap()@ etc. All that we require is
  the ability to call @malloc()@ to allocate a new chunk of memory.
  There can be intervening ``sandbars'' allocated by other programs
  (e.g. DLLs or other @malloc()@'d structures) between chunks of heap.
\end{itemize}

Language-support goals are:
\begin{itemize}
\item The garbage collector ``shorts out'' indirection objects introduced
by the mutator (notably when overwriting a thunk with an indirection).
\item The garbage collector executes selector thunks.
For example, a thunk for
@(fst x)@ where @x@ is a pointer to a pair @(a,b)@ would be
evaluated by the garbage collector to just @a@.  This is an important
strategy for plugging space leaks.
\item The garbage collector traversese the code tree, as well as
the heap data structures, to find which CAFs are live. This is a royal pain.
\item The garbage collector finalises some objects (typically a tiny minority).
At the moment ``finalisation'' means ``call a C routine when this thing
dies'' but it would be more general to schedule a call to a Haskell
procedure.
\end{itemize}

Instrumentation goals are:
\begin{itemize}
\item The garbage collector can gather heap-census information for profiling.
To this end we can force GC to happen more often than it otherwise would,
and the collector can gather information about the type and cost-centre
associated with each heap object.
\end{itemize}

\section{The architecture of the storage manager}

The storage manager is a component of the GHC system which is responsible
for allocating fresh memory for new objects and reclaiming memory 
that is no longer used.
It is built on a layered architecture and consists of four main parts:
\emph{megablock allocator}, \emph{block allocator}, \emph{heap allocator}, 
and \emph{garbage collector} (Figure~\ref{fig-architecture}). 
The megablock allocator communicates directly with the underlying 
operating system and forms the lowest level of the storage manager.
The heap allocator and garbage collector lie in the topmost level of
the storage manager and process requests from 
the mutator (the Haskell realm at the runtime) and the runtime system.
The block allocator lies between the two levels. 

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{architecture.eepic}
\caption{The overall architecture of the storage manager}
\label{fig-architecture}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\section{The megablock allocator}

% need more elaboration - Sung
The megablock allocator implements a direct interface to the underlying 
operating system. 
It can request a chunk of physical memory of a fixed size,
which is called a \emph{megablock}, from the operating system and returns it
to the block allocator. A new megablock is not initialized by the
megablock allocator; it is later initialized by the block allocator.

\subsection{Interface}

\begin{description}
\item[@void *getMBlock()@] allocates a single megablock and returns its 
starting address. 
\item[@void *getMBlocks(nat n)@] allocates @n@ contiguous megablocks 
and returns their starting address. 
\end{description}

\subsection{Implementation}

Since the megablock allocator communicates directly with the underlying
operating system, its implementation relies on memory allocation functions
provided by the operating system; thus, the implementation varies between
platforms. 
However, every megablock is always of a fixed size $2^M$ and aligned on a 
$2^M$ boundary, regardless of the platform 
(@MBLOCK_SIZE@ in @include/Constants.h@ defines the size of megablocks).
@mblocks_allocated@ in @MBlock.c@ stores the number of megablocks allocated.

For implementation details, see @MBlock.c@, @MBlock.h@, @include/Block.h@. 

\section{The block allocator}

The block allocator divides a megablock returned by the megablock allocator
into a contiguous group of \emph{block descriptors} followed by another 
contiguous group of \emph{blocks}. 

A block is a contiguous chunk of $2^K$ bytes, starting on 
a $2^K$-byte boundary (@BLOCK_SIZE@ in 
@include/Constants.h@ defines the size of blocks). 
Each block has its own associated block descriptor, which records the
current state of the block. 

Figure~\ref{fig-megablock} shows a megablock after initialization by the 
megablock allocator. 
Block descriptors occupy the lower address space and blocks the higher address 
space in the megablock. 
A block is the unit of allocation for the block allocator. 
That is, the block allocator hands over store to the heap allocator in multiples of 
one block, where multiple heap objects may be allocated.
A contiguous group of blocks, which is called a \emph{block group}, can be 
directly handed over to the heap allocator to reduce inter-block 
linkage costs.
The first block of a block group is called the \emph{group head}.\footnote{
An alternative design has the block descriptor at the start of each block.
This makes it easy to locate the block descriptor corresponding to a particular
block, but is pessimistic for cache locality when fiddling with block descriptors.
It also means that only the first block in a contiguous chunk of blocks can
have a block descriptor. This in turn makes it difficult to achieve an
efficient mostly-copying conservative (MCC) garbage collector.}
Since block descriptors are ordered linearly, we can always locate a block 
descriptor corresponding to a particular block from the starting address 
of the block.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{megablock.eepic}
\caption{A megablock after initialization}
\label{fig-megablock}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Interface}

\begin{description}
\item[@typedef struct bdescr@] is the type of block descriptors.
\item[@void initBlockAllocator(void)@] initializes the block allocator. 
\item[@bdescr *allocBlock(void)@] requests a single block and returns 
the address of its block descriptor. 
\item[@bdescr *allocGroup(nat n)@] allocates a block group of size @n@ 
and returns the address of the block descriptor for the group head.
\item[@void freeGroup(bdescr *p)@] frees the block group where @p@ points
to the block descriptor of the group head, and places it in a pool of
free block groups. 
\item[@bdescr *Bdescr(StgPtr p)@] takes a pointer @p@ to any byte within
a block and returns a pointer to its block descriptor. It is implemented as
an @inline@ procedure.
\end{description}

\subsection{Block descriptors}

A block descriptor has the following structure, defined in 
@include/Blocks.h@:

\begin{code}
typedef struct _bdescr {
  StgPtr          start;
  StgPtr          free; 
  StgWord32       blocks;
  struct _bdescr  *link;
  /* additional fields */
} bdescr;
\end{code}

The fields of a block descriptor have the following purposes:

\begin{description}
\item[@start@] points to the first byte of the corresponding block.
\item[@free@] For a group head, @free@ points to the first free byte in 
the block group. For a non-group head, @free@ is set to zero to identify
the corresponding block as a non-group head.
\item[@blocks@] For a group head, @blocks@ stores the number of blocks
in the block group. It is not used for non-group heads.
\item[@link@] For a group head, @link@ is used to chain all individual 
blocks or block groups together. For a non-group head, @link@ points
to the block descriptor of the group head.
\end{description}

\subsection{Implementation}

The block allocator maintains a linked list of free block groups, whose head
is stored in @free_list@ in @BlockAlloc.c@ (Figure~\ref{fig-freelist}).
When @allocBlock()@ or @allocGroup()@ is called, the block allocator
scans the linked list from @free_list@ and finds the first block group
which can handle the request.
If such a block group exists, it takes off the requested number of blocks
from the block group, creates a new block group from them, 
initializes it if needed, and returns it to the caller. 
The rest of the old block group, if any, is linked back to the list of free block 
groups as another block group. 
If such a block group does not exist, the block allocator requests a megablock
from the megablock allocator and processes the request using the new megablock.

For implementation details, see @BlockAlloc.c@ and @include/Block.h@.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{freelist.eepic}
\caption{Linked list of free block groups}
\label{fig-freelist}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\section{Heap allocator}

The role of the heap allocator in the storage manager is to allocate fresh
memory upon requests from the mutator and the runtime system.
Memory allocation takes place frequently during the execution of Haskell 
programs, and hence its efficiency is crucial to the overall performance.
To handle requests from the mutator and the runtime system efficiently,
the heap allocator maintains three different memory stores,
each of which has its own purpose.

The first store is the \emph{nursery}, where typical Haskell 
objects are born.
The mutator itself can allocate fresh memory directly in the nursery 
without invoking an interface function:
the configuration of the nursery is always revealed to the mutator and can even
be changed by the mutator when it allocates fresh memory from the nursery
on its own.
Thus, although the small overhead in manipulating the nursery results in fast
memory allocation, it is up to the mutator to keep the nursery in an 
uncorrupted state.

The second and the third are the \emph{small object pool} and the
\emph{large object pool}.
The heap allocator provides a common interface function to be shared by both stores:
the size of fresh memory requested, which is passed as an argument to the 
interface function, determines which of the two stores to be used.
The interface function can be called by both the mutator and the runtime system.

\subsection{Interface}

\begin{description}
\item[@void initStorage(void)@] initializes the storage manager. @Storage.c@.
\item[@void allocNurseries(void)@] creates and initializes the nursery. 
@Storage.c@.
\item[@void resetNurseries(void)@] re-initializes the nursery. @Storage.c@.
\item[@OpenNursery(hp, hplim)@] opens an allocation area in the nursery and sets 
@hp@ and @hplim@ appropriately. 
Then the caller can freely use the memory from @hp@ to @hpLim@. 
A macro in @include/StgStorage.h@.
\item[@CloseNursery(hp)@] closes the current allocation area beginning at @hp@
and returns it to the storage manager.
A macro in @include/StgStorage.h@.
\item[@ExtendNursery(hp, hplim)@] closes the current allocation area and 
tries to find a new allocation area in the nursery. 
If it succeeds, it sets @hp@ and @hplim@ appropriately and returns @rtsTrue@; 
otherwise, it returns @rtsFalse@,
which means that the nursery has been exhausted. 
The new allocation area is not necessarily contiguous with the old one.
A macro in @Storage.h@.
\item[@StgPtr allocate(nat n)@] allocates @n@ words from either the small
object pool or the large object pool, depending on the argument @n@, 
and returns a pointer to the first byte. It \emph{always} succeeds.
@Storage.c@.
\end{description}

\subsection{Implementation}

The nursery is implemented with a fixed number of blocks (@nursery_blocks@
in @Storage.c@ specifies the number of blocks). 
Each of these blocks forms its own block group, and they are all linked together
by @allocNurseries()@. 
The blocks in the nursery are carefully allocated in a contiguous address
range so that they fit next to each other in the cache.
They are never freed. 

A single block called the \emph{active block} provides the allocation area for
the mutator at any moment.
When the free space left in the active block is not enough for the request from 
the mutator, the heap allocator sets the @free@ field in the corresponding
block descriptor to the first free byte in the block and moves the allocation
area to the next block. 

Figure~\ref{fig-nursery} shows the configuration of the nursery during
the mutator time.
The head of the linked list is stored in @MainRegTable.rNursery@, and
the address of the block descriptor of the active block is stored 
in @MainRegTable.rCurrentNursery@.
@Hp@, defined as @MainRegTable.rHp@, points to the byte before the first byte of 
the current allocation area in the active block.
@HpLim@, defines as @MainRegTable.rHpLim@, marks the boundary of the current 
allocation area:
it points to the last byte in the current allocation area, and thus
all the bytes of memory addresses from @Hp@$ + 1$ to @HpLim@ are free.
The mutator can obtain fresh memory simply by adjusting @Hp@ as long as the new
value of @Hp@ does not exceed @HpLim@. For instance, if the mutator 
increases @Hp@ by @n@, it can now store an object of size up to @n@ at the 
address pointed to by the old value of @Hp@$ + 1$.

When the runtime system runs, none of the above four pointers 
(@MainRegTable.rNursery@, @MainRegTable.rCurrentNursery@, @Hp@ and @HpLim@) are 
valid; they are simply aliases to registers.
Instead @g0s0->blocks@\footnote{@g0s0->blocks@ is valid all the time, even during
the mutator time.  The meaning of @g0s0@ is explained in the next section.} 
can be used to retrieve the head of the linked list, and
the @free@ field in each block descriptor points to the first free byte
in its corresponding block.\footnote{To be precise, this is \emph{not} the
case: a @free@ field may point to a byte past its actual boundary.
This happens because
the mutator first increases @hpLim@ without comparing it with the
actual boundary when allocating fresh memory,
and later assigns @hpLim@ to the @free@ of the corresponding block.}
@Hp@ and @HpLim@ are not saved because they can be inferred from @free@ fields
of the blocks descriptors in the nursery.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{nursery.eepic}
\caption{Nursery during the mutator time}
\label{fig-nursery}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The small object pool is implemented with a linked list of block groups, 
each of which consists of a single block (Figure~\ref{fig-smallobjectpool}).
The head of the linked list is stored in @small_alloc_list@ in @Storage.c@.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{smallobjectpool.eepic}
\caption{Small object pool}
\label{fig-smallobjectpool}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The allocation in the small object pool is done in the same way as in the
nursery; @alloc_Hp@ and @alloc_HpLim@ (both defined in @Storage.c@) 
point to the first free byte and the boundary of the small object pool, 
respectively.
Thus, when @allocate()@ is called and the heap allocator decides to 
allocate fresh memory in the small object pool, it simply increases @alloc_Hp@
by the size of memory requested. 
If the allocation cannot be done in the current small object pool, the 
heap allocator calls @allocBlock()@ to obtain a new block from the block
allocator, puts it to the head of the linked list, and 
sets @alloc_Hp@ and @alloc_HpLim@ appropriately.

The large object pool is also implemented with a (doubly) linked list of block
groups (Figure~\ref{fig-largeobjectpool}). 
The difference from the small object pool is that each block group stores only 
a single object: each time the argument to @allocate()@ is
greater than a threshold value (computed from @LARGE_OBJECT_THRESHOLD@ 
in @include/Constants.h@), a new block group accommodating the requested size 
is created to store a single object. 
The new block group is put to the head of the list. 
The head of the linked list is available as @g0s0->large_objects@.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{largeobjectpool.eepic}
\caption{Large object pool}
\label{fig-largeobjectpool}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

For implementation details, see @Storage.c@ and @include/StgStorage.h@.

\section{Garbage collector}

The garbage collector finds all the objects unreachable from a given set of
roots and frees the memory allocated to them. By invoking the
garbage collector regularly, the storage manager prevents the heap from
growing indefinitely and allows Haskell programs to be executed at a 
reasonable memory cost.

The garbage collector in the storage manager is based upon the generational 
garbage collection algorithm.
The storage manager records the age for every object in the heap.
An object surviving one garbage collection grows old by one \emph{step},
and an object surviving a certain number of garbage collections 
is promoted to the next \emph{generation}.
That is, a step can be defined as a collection of objects which have survived
the same number of garbage collections (or a collection of objects which are
born at some point between two particular successive garbage collections),
and a generation as a group of steps belonging to a certain range of ages.
Notice that the unit of garbage collections is not step but generation: 
a garbage collection applies to all the steps in a generation, and we cannot 
perform a garbage collection just on part of a generation.
Furthermore, if a particular generation is garbage collected, so are 
all the younger generations.\footnote{Some 
authors define a generation as the set of 
all the objects created between two particular garbage collection and
an object cannot change its generation (e.g., 1960's, 1970's, and so on).
In this document, 
an object can change its generation as it survives garbage collections
(e.g., teenagers, 20's, and so on).}

Figure~\ref{fig-generation} illustrates how an object grows old.
Every object is created in step $0$ of generation $0$. 
As it survives garbage collections, it is moved to the next step of the
same generation until it is finally promoted to 
step $0$ of the next generation:
during a garbage collection of generation $g < G$, live objects from 
step $s < S_g$ are moved to step $s + 1$, and live objects from
the last step $S_g$ are promoted to step $0$ in generation $g + 1$.
Live objects in step $0$ of generation $G$ stay in the same step;
the oldest generation maintains only one step because there is no point
in aging objects in the oldest generation.
In this way, objects are given a decent chance of dying before being
promoted to the next generation.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{generation.eepic}
\caption{Evolution of objects through garbage collections}
\label{fig-generation}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The main reason that we separate steps from generations is to
reduce the cost of maintaining \emph{backward inter-generational pointers},
that is, pointers from older generations to younger generations.
Suppose that a garbage collection applies to all generations $0$
through $g$. If an object @O@ in one of these generations is pointed to
by another object in generation $g' > g$, we cannot free the object @O@
even though generation $g'$ is out of consideration. Consequently
we have to track backward inter-generational pointers to perform garbage
collections correctly.
Since maintaining backward pointers is costly, we
choose to track backward inter-generational pointers only;
we do not track backward inter-step pointers.

By grouping all the objects created between two garbage collections
and grouping multiple age groups into one generation, the garbage
collector makes an efficient use of heap memory.

\subsection{Interface}

\begin{description}
%\item[@StgClosure *MarkRoot(StgClosure *root)@] informs the garbage collector
%that @root@ is an object in the root set. It returns the new location of 
%the object. @GC.c@.
\item[@void *mark\_root(StgClosure **root)@] informs the garbage collector
that @*root@ is an object in the root set. It replaces @*root@ by 
the new location of the object. @GC.c@.
\item[@void GarbageCollect(void (*get\_roots)(evac\_fn), rtsBool force\_major\_gc)@]
performs a garbage collection. 
@get_roots()@ is a function which is called by the garbage collector when
it wishes to find all the objects in the root set (other than those
it can find itself).
Therefore it is incumbent on the caller to find the root set.
@force_major_gc@ specifies whether a major garbage collection is required
or not. If a major garbage collection is not required, the garbage collector
decides an oldest generation $g$ to garbage collect on its own.
@GC.c@.
\item[@rtsBool doYouWantToGC(void)@] returns @rtsTrue@ if the garbage
collector is ready to perform a garbage collection. Specifically, it returns
@rtsTrue@ if the number of allocated blocks since the last garbage collection
(@alloc_blocks@ in @Storage.c@) exceeds an approximate limit 
(@alloc_blocks_lim@ in @Storage.c@).
@Storage.h@.
\item[@void recordMutable(StgMutClosure *p)@] informs the garbage collector
that a previously immutable object @p@ has become mutable.
The garbage collector then puts the object @p@ in the list @mut_list@ of the 
generation to which it belongs.\footnote{It is easy to 
locate the generation to which a dynamic object belongs from its address: 
we can identify the block in which the object resides from its address,
and the corresponding block descriptor stores pointers 
to the step and the generation (@gen@ and @step@ fields in the @bdescr@ 
structure) to which it belongs.}
It suffices to call @RecordMutable()@ only once for any object. 

For an object which is genuinely mutable (e.g., mutable arrays), 
it is permanently recorded as mutable. 
On the other hand, 
an object which is temporarily mutable (e.g., frozen arrays),
can be dropped from the list @mut_list@ once its pointer has been dealt with
during garbage collections. @Storage.h@.
\item[@void recordOldToNewPtrs(StgMutClosure *p)@] puts the object @p@ in the
list @mut_once_list@ of the generation to which it belongs.
\item[@void newCAF(StgClosure *caf)@] puts the CAF @caf@ either 
in the list @caf_list@ or
in the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation,
depending on whether it is dynamically loaded or not.
\end{description}

\subsection{Steps}

A step has the following structure, defined in 
@include/StgStorage.h@:

\begin{code}
typedef struct _step {
  unsigned int no;
  bdescr *blocks;
  unsigned int n_blocks;
  bdescr *large_objects;
  /* additional fields */
} step;
\end{code}

The fields of a step have the following purposes (Figure~\ref{fig-step}):

\begin{description}
\item[@no@] indicates the age within its generation. 
$0$ indicates the youngest step in a generation.
\item[@blocks@] is a linked list of all the blocks in this step 
which contain small objects.
Each block forms its own block group.
\item[@n\_blocks@] is the number of blocks in the linked list @blocks@.
\item[@large\_objects@] is a (doubly) linked list of all the block groups 
in this step which contain large objects. 
Each block group stores only a single object.
\end{description}

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{step.eepic}
\caption{Memory layout of a step}
\label{fig-step}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The linked list @blocks@ of step $s$ in generation $g$ is created 
during a garbage collection
from live small objects of step $s - 1$ in the same generation 
(or the last step in the previous generation if $s = 0$).
The @free@ field in every block descriptor never changes because
no objects are added after the garbage collection; new objects are created 
only in step $0$ in generation $0$.
Likewise, the linked list @large_objects@ is created during a
garbage collection from live large objects of the previous step. 

There are three exceptions to the above rules. 
First, both @blocks@ and @large_objects@ of
step $0$ in generation $0$ are not filled with new objects during a garbage 
collection. 
They are simply re-initialized by the garbage collector and 
grow during during the execution of a program as new objects are
created.
Step $0$ in generation $0$ is accessible via a global variable @g0s0@, 
and this is the reason why the large object pool (described in the previous 
section) is indeed stored in @g0s0->large_objects@. 
For the same reason, @MainRegTable.rNursery@ holds the same address as 
@g0s0->blocks@ during the mutator time.
Second, @blocks@ of step $1$ in generation $0$ is created not only from
the nursery (@blocks@ of step $0$ in the same generation) but also from the 
small object pool. In other words, all the live small objects created since
the previous garbage collection, either directly by the mutator or indirectly
through @allocate()@, are gathered together in the same linked list.
Finally, step $0$ of the oldest generation serves the source for itself during
any garbage collection, i.e., $S_G = 1$, because there exists no older step.

\subsection{Generations}

A generation has the following structure, defined in 
@include/StgStorage.h@:

\begin{code}
typedef struct _generation {
  unsigned int no;
  step *steps;
  unsigned int n_steps;
  unsigned int max_blocks;
  StgMutClosure *mut_list;
  StgMutClosure *mut_once_list;
  /* additional fields */
} generation;
\end{code}

The fields of a generation have the following purposes (Figure~\ref{fig-gen}):

\begin{description}
\item[@no@] is the generation number.
\item[@steps@] points to an array of @step@ structures. @steps[@$i$@]@ 
corresponds to step $i$ in this generation, i.e., 
@steps[@$i$@].no@ is equal to $i$.
\item[@n\_steps@] is the number of @step@ structures in the array pointed to 
by @steps@.
\item[@max\_blocks@] is the maximum number of blocks allowed in step $0$ of
this generation. If the number of blocks allocated 
in step @0@ exceeds @max_blocks@,
this generation is garbage collected during the next garbage collection.
\item[@mut\_list@] links all mutable objects in this generation, that is,
objects whose contents can be updated and hence may contain pointers to
younger generations. 
Every object in this linked list is a dynamic object residing in the heap 
and has a structure compatible with @StgMutClosure@.
The structure @StgMutClosure@ (@includes/Closures.h@) has a field 
@mut_link@ (called a mutable link field) of type @StgMutClosure *@, which
points to the next object in this linked list.
The end mark of this linked list is a pointer to a statically allocated object 
@END_MUT_LIST@ (@StoragePriv.h@).
\item[@mut\_once\_list@] links objects in this generation whose contents 
cannot be updated any more but may already have pointers to younger generations.
As with @mut_list@, it links only those objects whose structure is compatible
with @StgMutClosure@ and ends with @END_MUT_LIST@.
\end{description}

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{center}
\input{gen.eepic}
\caption{Memory layout of a generation}
\label{fig-gen}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The garbage collector maintains an array @generations@ of @generation@ structure
(defined in @Storage.c@), whose size is stored in a runtime system flag 
(@RtsFlags.GcFlags.generations@). 
The generation number of each generation coincides with its index into
the array @generations@, i.e.,  @generations[@$i$@].no@ is equal to $i$.

As mentioned before, lists of objects which may have pointers to younger
generations are kept per generation, not per step. The youngest generation,
accessible via a global variable @g0@, does not keep such a list because it
does not have younger generations.

The oldest generation, accessible via a global variable @oldest_gen@, may
contain static objects (as opposed to dynamic objects residing in the heap)
in its list @mut_once_list@. This happens when a static
thunk, also known as a \emph{constant applicative form} (CAF), is entered.
When a CAF (corresponding to closure type @THUNK_STATIC@, defined
in @includes/ClosureTypes.h@) is entered, 
it is first put in the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation
and then overwritten with an appropriate static indirection object 
(corresponding to closure type @IND_STATIC@).\footnote{Actually a static 
indirection object does not have a @mut\_link@ field.
We use its @static\_link@ field as a substitute for @mut\_link@.
See the structure @StgIndStatic@ in @include/Closures.h@.}\footnote{For
details of this operation, see the macro @UPD\_CAF()@ in @includes/Updates.h@}
If the CAF is dynamically loaded (e.g., in an interactive environment), it is 
instead put in a separate linked list @caf_list@ 
(declared in @Storage.c@). 

The evaluation result of the 
CAF is stored in a separate dynamic object in the heap and the static 
indirection object has a pointer to the dynamic object.
Thus, the new static indirection object is put in the list 
@mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation (or the list @caf_list@) so that the 
dynamic object is not removed during the next garbage collection.
Once it is created, the static indirection object remains unaltered, which
is the reason why it is put in the @mut_once_list@ list, not in the 
@mut_list@ list.
Since the static indirection object survives any garbage collection (because
it comes from a static object) and would be eventually moved to the oldest 
generation,
we put it in the @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation as soon
as it is created.

\subsection{Implementation}

The overall structure of a garbage collection is as follows:

\begin{enumerate}
\item[(1)] Initialize.
\item[(2)] Scavenge lists @mut_once_list@ and @mut_list@ if necessary.
\item[(3)] Scavenge CAFs.
\item[(4)] Evacuate roots.
\item[(5)] Scavenge objects.
\item[(6)] Tidy up.
\end{enumerate}

\subsubsection{(1) Initialization}

During initialization, the garbage collector first decides which generation
to garbage collect.
Specifically, 
if the argument @force_major_gc@ to @GarbageCollect()@ is @rtsFalse@,
it decides the greatest generation number $N$ such
that the number of blocks allocated in step $0$ of generation $N$ exceeds
@generations[@$N$@].max_blocks@. 
If the argument @force_major_gc@ to @GarbageCollect()@ is @rtsTrue@,
$N$ is set to the greatest generation number, namely, 
$@RtsFlags.GcFlags.generations@ - 1$.
The garbage collector considers up to generation $N$ for garbage collection.
A major garbage collection takes place if $N$ is set to 
$@RtsFlags.GcFlags.generations@ - 1$ during this process.

Then, the garbage collector initialize the \emph{to-space} (as opposed to
\emph{from-space}) for each step of 
each generation, which is complete with an \emph{allocation pointer} and
an \emph{sweep pointer}.
The to-space of a step is the memory to which any object belonging to the
step can be copied when it survives a garbage collection.
For instance, a live object in step $s$ of generation $g$ can first be copied
to the to-space associated with step $s$, which eventually becomes 
associated with the next step $s + 1$ (or step $0$ of the next generation)
during tidying up.
This operation effectively moves an object to the next step if it survives
a garbage collection. 
The allocation pointer points to the next free in the to-space while 
the sweep pointer points to the next object considered for scavenging.

During major garbage collections,
the static link field of every static object indicates whether it has
been visited by the garbage collector or not.
Therefore, the static link field of every static object must have
a null value before a major garbage collection starts. 
The list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation may contain static 
indirection objects, and thus 
the garbage collector invokes @zero_mutable_list()@ on the list,
Although this breaks up the list, it does not cause any problem because 
the list is not employed during major garbage collections.

\subsubsection{\tt evacuate()}

The function @evacuate()@ (defined in @GC.c@), which 
is called eventually for every live object 
(including even static objects reachable from roots),
moves an object to
a safe place so as not to be garbage collected.
Before invoking the function @evacuate()@ on an object @o@, the caller specifies
a \emph{desired generation} for @o@ in a variable @evac_gen@
(declared in @GC.c@).
The desired generation is the youngest generation to which the caller wishes 
@o@ to be evacuated; the garbage collector should evacuate @o@ to a 
generation no younger than the desired generation.

Depending on @evac_gen@ and the generation $M$ where @o@ currently resides,
@evacuate()@ behaves itself as follows:
\begin{itemize}
\item If @evac_gen@ $\leq M$ and $N < M$, it does nothing because @o@ is already
      in a generation no younger than @evac_gen@.
\item If @evac_gen@ $\leq M \leq N$, it evacuates @o@ to the to-space of the 
step to which @o@ currently belongs. @o@ will be moved to the next step later.
@recordMutable()@ may be invoked on @o@ depending on its type (e.g., @MVAR@).
\item If $M <$ @evac_gen@, @o@ is evacuated to the to-space of step $0$
      of generation @even_gen@, which accomplishes the request.
      This happens even when $N \leq$ @evac_gen@. Therefore, those generations
      which are not considered for garbage collection may still be augmented
      with new objects during garbage collection.
      @recordMutable()@ may be invoked on @o@ depending on its type.
\end{itemize}
If @o@ has already been evacuated, @evacuate()@ either does nothing (when
@even_gen@ $\leq M$) or reports
a failure to evacuate @o@ by setting the flag @failed_to_evac@ (declared
in @GC.c@). 

Evacuating a large object is handled by @evacuate_large()@.  
Since it is costly to allocate new memory blocks and copy all the contents
of the object, the garbage collector simply removes the object form
the list @large_alloc_list@ of its step and links it to another list,
from which it will be scavenged later.

\subsubsection{Set of roots for garbage collection}
Part of the set of roots for garbage collection is obtained indirectly by 
invoking the function
@get_roots()@, an argument to @GarbageCollect()@: the garbage collector
invokes @get_roots()@ with @mark_root()@ as an argument, and @get_roots()@
in turn invokes @mark_root()@ on each of known roots.
The rest of the set of roots is obtained from the lists @mut_list@ and
@mut_once_list@ of generation $N + 1$ through the oldest generation:
any objects in these lists may have pointers to objects in generations
$0$ to $N$, and thus must be considered as a root.
If a major garbage collection takes place, no @mut_list@ and @mut_once_list@
lists are consider for scavenging and step (2) is skipped.
The entire set of roots is now specified by @get_roots()@ alone.

\subsubsection{(2) Scavenging lists {\tt mut\_once\_list} and {\tt mut\_list}}

Since the roots obtained from the lists @mut_list@ and @mut_once_list@ are
already in generations $N' > N$, we only have to scavenge them.
That is, it suffices to invoke @evacuate()@ once on each object 
which is currently pointed to by an object in these lists. 

When scavenging an object @r@ in the list @mut_once_list@ of generation $M$,
the desired generation is set to $M$ for each object @o@ pointed
to by @r@ before invoking @evacuate()@. 
The rationale is that the contents of @r@ cannot be updated any more,
and thus @r@ is always survived by @o@; @o@ is live as long as @r@ is.
Therefore, we wish @r@ to be evacuated to the same generation $M$ as @r@
currently resides (not to its next step).
If the evacuation succeeds (indicated by a @rtsFalse@ value of a variable
@failed_to_evac@, declared in @GC.c@) for every object @o@, @r@ is removed 
from the list @mut_once_list@ because it does not hold any backward 
inter-generational pointers.\footnote{It turns out that @r@ can have only
one such object @o@. The type of @r@ is one of the following:
@IND\_OLDGEN@, @IND\_OLDGEN\_PERM@, @IND\_STATIC@, and @MUT\_VAR@.}

Scavenging a list @mut_list@ is similar to the case of @mut_once_list@.
When scavenging an object @r@ in the list @mut_list@ of generation $M$,
the desired generation is set to $M$ for each object pointed to by @r@
if @r@ is known to be immutable (e.g., @MUT_ARR_PTRS_FROZEN@, 
@IND_OLDGEN@)
or to $0$ if @r@ is still mutable (e.g., @MUT_ARR_PTRS@, @MUT_VAR@).
The list @mut_once_list@ is also adjusted if it is safe to remove @r@ from
@mut_list@. 

\subsubsection{(3) Scavenging CAFs}

When a dynamically loaded CAF is entered, it it first put to the list 
@caf_list@ and then overwritten with a static indirection object.
The evaluation result of the CAF is stored in a dynamic object in the heap
and the static indirection object stores a pointer to the dynamic object.
Although the static indirection object (or the CAF) itself is never freed, 
it may be removed later from the @caf_list@ when it is reverted to the 
original CAF, and the dynamic object may not be live afterwards.
Hence, we treat the dynamic object just as normal dynamic objects and
set the desired generation to $0$.

\subsubsection{(4) Evacuating roots}

Evacuating roots (other than those in the lists @mut_once_list@ and 
@mut_list@) is simply done by invoking @get_roots()@ with @mark_root()@
as an argument. 
Since these roots are normal dynamic objects, we set the desired generation
to $0$.

\subsubsection{(5) Scavenging}

The garbage collector scavenges all the objects in the to-space of
each step (by invoking @evacuate()@ on each object reachable from them) 
until every sweep pointer has reached its corresponding 
allocation pointer. 
It repeatedly examines all the to-spaces because not only sweep pointers
but also allocation pointers change during scavenging:
when an object @r@ is scavenged, each object reachable from 
@r@ is evacuated to a certain to-space, which increases the corresponding
allocation pointer, and
the sweep pointer of the to-space which currently contains @r@
increases as well upon finishing scavenging the object @r@.
Thus, the garbage collector cannot anticipate in advance how many times 
it needs to scan through all the to-spaces; it keeps scavenging until
no objects are left to be scavenged.

\subsubsection{Scavenging static objects}

Since it is possible for dynamic objects to point to static objects,
the garbage collector may invoke @evacuate()@ on static objects 
while scavenging dynamic objects in to-spaces.
This complicates the garbage collector because 
static objects cannot be evacuated in general yet
they may have pointers to dynamic objects, which must be evacuated.
Thus the garbage collector needs to at least scavenge live static objects
(as opposed to those static objects currently not reachable from roots).

When a minor garbage collection is performed, any invocation of
@evacuate()@ on static objects is simply ignored. 
Furthermore, no static object is considered for scavenging
(except those in the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation during).
Still all dynamic objects which are marked as live due to static objects
are safely evacuated.
The reason is that we can reach all such dynamic objects from 
indirection static objects stored in the list 
@mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation, which is scavenged during step (2),
and the list @caf_list@.
In other words, in order to evacuate all such dynamic objects, it is 
sufficient to evacuate all dynamic objects reachable from 
static indirection objects in 
the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation and the list @caf_list@.
However, the garbage collector may unnecessarily scavenge certain static 
indirection objects which are no longer used.
They are not scavenged during a major garbage collection, however.

During a major garbage collection,
if an invocation of @evacuate()@ on a static object @r@ is made,
the garbage collector first checks whether @r@ needs to be scavenged or not.
If its SRT (Static Reference Table) is empty and it has no other pointers, 
no dynamic objects are reachable from @r@ and it is ignored.\footnote{If 
no dynamic objects are reachable from a static object @r@ (even indirectly
via multiple static objects),
@r@ is not stored in \emph{any} SRT table because it would be no use attempting
to follow any pointers in @r@.}
Otherwise, it is put in the list @static_objects@.
At the beginning of each scavenging loop in step (5), 
the garbage collector invokes @scavenge_static()@ if the list @static_objects@
is not empty.
@scavenge_static()@ scavenges the static objects in the list @static_objects@
by invoking @evacuate()@ on every object reachable from them.
The desired generation is set to the oldest generation (because any
dynamic object directly pointed to by a static object lives 
forever).
These static objects are then put in another list @scavenged_static_objects@
and removed from the list @static_objects@.
For a static indirection object, if the evacuation 
fails, it is put back to the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation;
it can be thought of as a CAF just entered.

After a major garbage collection, therefore, the list @scavenged_static_objects@
links all live static objects except for static indirection objects put back
to the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation. 
Dynamically loaded CAFs are found in the list @caf_list@.

\subsubsection{(6) Tidying up}

The garbage collector tidies up the heap by 
moving the to-space of each step to the next step. 
It also re-initialize the small object pool (which now does not contain
any live objects), frees any large objects which have not been scavenged,
and invokes @resetNurseries()@.
If a major garbage collection has been performed, it 
invokes @zero_static_object_list()@ on the list @scavenged_static_objects@ 
so that all static objects
(other than those in the list @mut_once_list@ of the oldest generation)
have a null static link field again.

At this point, both the small allocation pool and the large object pool are
empty. Upon the exit from @GarbageCollect()@, however, they may not
be empty any more because the garbage collector invokes @scheduleFinalizer()@
before exiting, which tries to run pending finalizers on dead weak pointers and 
may create new objects through @allocate()@.
The nursery still remains intact.

The heap may contain extra objects which are not reachable from the roots
used during the garbage collection: 1) weak head pointers; 2) dead
weak head pointers. Weak head pointers can be tracked from 
the list @weak_ptr_list@ (declared in @Weak.c@). However, there is no way
of reaching dead weak pointers; they will be garbage collected during the
next garbage collection.

For implementation details, see @GC.c@.

\section{State of the heap allocator and the garbage collector}

The state of the heap allocator and the garbage collector is fully specified by the 
following variables:

\begin{description}
\item[@small\_alloc\_list@] is the header of the small object pool.
\item[@alloc\_Hp@] points to the first free byte in the small object pool.
\item[@alloc\_HpLim@] points to the boundary of the small object pool.
\item[@generations@] is the array of @generation@ structures.
\item[@RtsFlags.GcFlags.generations@] specifies the number of elements in 
the array @generations@.
\item[@caf\_list@] links dynamically loaded CAFs.
\end{description}

\textbf{To do:} check if this is a complete list.

The following variables are derivable, but they are given special purposes:

\begin{description}
\item[@g0s0@] points to step 0 of the youngest generation.
\item[@oldest\_gen@] points to the oldest generation.
\item[@g0s0->blocks@] is the header of the nursery.
\item[@g0s0->large\_blocks@] is the header of the large object pool.
\end{description}

\section{Miscellaneous notes}

\begin{itemize}
\item To see how to add new fields to Haskell closures, 
see the document on the implementation of retainer profiling 
(section `Adding Retainer Set Fields').

\item To see how to traverse the graph and visit every live closure,
see the document on the implementation of retainer profiling
(section `Graph Traversal').

\item To see how to linearly scan the heap at any random moment during
program execution, see the document on the implementation of LDVU profiling
(section `Heap Censuses').

\item To see how to linearly scan the from-space during garbage collections,
see the document on the implementation of LDVU profiling
(section `Destruction of Closures').

\end{itemize}

\end{document}