path: root/libraries/base/GHC/Base.lhs

\section[GHC.Base]{Module @GHC.Base@}

The overall structure of the GHC Prelude is a bit tricky.

  a) We want to avoid "orphan modules", i.e. ones with instance
        decls that don't belong either to a tycon or a class
        defined in the same module

  b) We want to avoid giant modules

So the rough structure is as follows, in (linearised) dependency order


GHC.Prim        Has no implementation.  It defines built-in things, and
                by importing it you bring them into scope.
                The source file is GHC.Prim.hi-boot, which is just
                copied to make GHC.Prim.hi

GHC.Base        Classes: Eq, Ord, Functor, Monad
                Types:   list, (), Int, Bool, Ordering, Char, String

Data.Tuple      Types: tuples, plus instances for GHC.Base classes

GHC.Show        Class: Show, plus instances for GHC.Base/GHC.Tup types

GHC.Enum        Class: Enum,  plus instances for GHC.Base/GHC.Tup types

Data.Maybe      Type: Maybe, plus instances for GHC.Base classes

GHC.List        List functions

GHC.Num         Class: Num, plus instances for Int
                Type:  Integer, plus instances for all classes so far (Eq, Ord, Num, Show)

                Integer is needed here because it is mentioned in the signature
                of 'fromInteger' in class Num

GHC.Real        Classes: Real, Integral, Fractional, RealFrac
                         plus instances for Int, Integer
                Types:  Ratio, Rational
                        plus intances for classes so far

                Rational is needed here because it is mentioned in the signature
                of 'toRational' in class Real

GHC.ST  The ST monad, instances and a few helper functions

Ix              Classes: Ix, plus instances for Int, Bool, Char, Integer, Ordering, tuples

GHC.Arr         Types: Array, MutableArray, MutableVar

                Arrays are used by a function in GHC.Float

GHC.Float       Classes: Floating, RealFloat
                Types:   Float, Double, plus instances of all classes so far

                This module contains everything to do with floating point.
                It is a big module (900 lines)
                With a bit of luck, many modules can be compiled without ever reading GHC.Float.hi


Other Prelude modules are much easier with fewer complex dependencies.

\begin{code}
{-# LANGUAGE Unsafe #-}
{-# LANGUAGE CPP
           , NoImplicitPrelude
           , BangPatterns
           , ExplicitForAll
           , MagicHash
           , UnboxedTuples
           , ExistentialQuantification
           , RankNTypes
  #-}
-- -fno-warn-orphans is needed for things like:
-- Orphan rule: "x# -# x#" ALWAYS forall x# :: Int# -# x# x# = 0
{-# OPTIONS_GHC -fno-warn-orphans #-}
{-# OPTIONS_HADDOCK hide #-}

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- |
-- Module      :  GHC.Base
-- Copyright   :  (c) The University of Glasgow, 1992-2002
-- License     :  see libraries/base/LICENSE
--
-- Maintainer  :  cvs-ghc@haskell.org
-- Stability   :  internal
-- Portability :  non-portable (GHC extensions)
--
-- Basic data types and classes.
--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

#include "MachDeps.h"

module GHC.Base
        (
        module GHC.Base,
        module GHC.Classes,
        module GHC.CString,
        module GHC.Magic,
        module GHC.Types,
        module GHC.Prim,        -- Re-export GHC.Prim and [boot] GHC.Err,
                                -- to avoid lots of people having to
        module GHC.Err          -- import it explicitly
  )
        where

import GHC.Types
import GHC.Classes
import GHC.CString
import GHC.Magic
import GHC.Prim
import GHC.Err
import {-# SOURCE #-} GHC.IO (failIO)

import GHC.Tuple ()     -- Note [Depend on GHC.Tuple]
import GHC.Integer ()   -- Note [Depend on GHC.Integer]

infixr 9  .
infixr 5  ++
infixl 4  <$
infixl 1  >>, >>=
infixr 1  =<<
infixr 0  $, $!

infixl 4 <*>, <*, *>, <**>

default ()              -- Double isn't available yet
\end{code}

Note [Depend on GHC.Integer]
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Integer type is special because TidyPgm uses
GHC.Integer.Type.mkInteger to construct Integer literal values
Currently it reads the interface file whether or not the current
module *has* any Integer literals, so it's important that
GHC.Integer.Type (in patckage integer-gmp or integer-simple) is
compiled before any other module.  (There's a hack in GHC to disable
this for packages ghc-prim, integer-gmp, integer-simple, which aren't
allowed to contain any Integer literals.)

Likewise we implicitly need Integer when deriving things like Eq
instances.

The danger is that if the build system doesn't know about the dependency
on Integer, it'll compile some base module before GHC.Integer.Type,
resulting in:
  Failed to load interface for ‘GHC.Integer.Type’
    There are files missing in the ‘integer-gmp’ package,

Bottom line: we make GHC.Base depend on GHC.Integer; and everything
else either depends on GHC.Base, or does not have NoImplicitPrelude
(and hence depends on Prelude).

Note [Depend on GHC.Tuple]
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Similarly, tuple syntax (or ()) creates an implicit dependency on
GHC.Tuple, so we use the same rule as for Integer --- see Note [Depend on
GHC.Integer] --- to explain this to the build system.  We make GHC.Base
depend on GHC.Tuple, and everything else depends on GHC.Base or Prelude.

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{DEBUGGING STUFF}
%*  (for use when compiling GHC.Base itself doesn't work)
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
{-
data  Bool  =  False | True
data Ordering = LT | EQ | GT
data Char = C# Char#
type  String = [Char]
data Int = I# Int#
data  ()  =  ()
data [] a = MkNil

not True = False
(&&) True True = True
otherwise = True

build = error "urk"
foldr = error "urk"
-}

\end{code}

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{The Maybe type}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************
\begin{code}

-- | The 'Maybe' type encapsulates an optional value.  A value of type
-- @'Maybe' a@ either contains a value of type @a@ (represented as @'Just' a@),
-- or it is empty (represented as 'Nothing').  Using 'Maybe' is a good way to
-- deal with errors or exceptional cases without resorting to drastic
-- measures such as 'error'.
--
-- The 'Maybe' type is also a monad.  It is a simple kind of error
-- monad, where all errors are represented by 'Nothing'.  A richer
-- error monad can be built using the 'Data.Either.Either' type.
--
data  Maybe a  =  Nothing | Just a
  deriving (Eq, Ord)

\end{code}

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{Monoids}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************
\begin{code}

-- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- | The class of monoids (types with an associative binary operation that
-- has an identity).  Instances should satisfy the following laws:
--
--  * @mappend mempty x = x@
--
--  * @mappend x mempty = x@
--
--  * @mappend x (mappend y z) = mappend (mappend x y) z@
--
--  * @mconcat = 'foldr' mappend mempty@
--
-- The method names refer to the monoid of lists under concatenation,
-- but there are many other instances.
--
-- Some types can be viewed as a monoid in more than one way,
-- e.g. both addition and multiplication on numbers.
-- In such cases we often define @newtype@s and make those instances
-- of 'Monoid', e.g. 'Sum' and 'Product'.

class Monoid a where
        mempty  :: a
        -- ^ Identity of 'mappend'
        mappend :: a -> a -> a
        -- ^ An associative operation
        mconcat :: [a] -> a

        -- ^ Fold a list using the monoid.
        -- For most types, the default definition for 'mconcat' will be
        -- used, but the function is included in the class definition so
        -- that an optimized version can be provided for specific types.

        mconcat = foldr mappend mempty

instance Monoid [a] where
        mempty  = []
        mappend = (++)

instance Monoid b => Monoid (a -> b) where
        mempty _ = mempty
        mappend f g x = f x `mappend` g x

instance Monoid () where
        -- Should it be strict?
        mempty        = ()
        _ `mappend` _ = ()
        mconcat _     = ()

instance (Monoid a, Monoid b) => Monoid (a,b) where
        mempty = (mempty, mempty)
        (a1,b1) `mappend` (a2,b2) =
                (a1 `mappend` a2, b1 `mappend` b2)

instance (Monoid a, Monoid b, Monoid c) => Monoid (a,b,c) where
        mempty = (mempty, mempty, mempty)
        (a1,b1,c1) `mappend` (a2,b2,c2) =
                (a1 `mappend` a2, b1 `mappend` b2, c1 `mappend` c2)

instance (Monoid a, Monoid b, Monoid c, Monoid d) => Monoid (a,b,c,d) where
        mempty = (mempty, mempty, mempty, mempty)
        (a1,b1,c1,d1) `mappend` (a2,b2,c2,d2) =
                (a1 `mappend` a2, b1 `mappend` b2,
                 c1 `mappend` c2, d1 `mappend` d2)

instance (Monoid a, Monoid b, Monoid c, Monoid d, Monoid e) =>
                Monoid (a,b,c,d,e) where
        mempty = (mempty, mempty, mempty, mempty, mempty)
        (a1,b1,c1,d1,e1) `mappend` (a2,b2,c2,d2,e2) =
                (a1 `mappend` a2, b1 `mappend` b2, c1 `mappend` c2,
                 d1 `mappend` d2, e1 `mappend` e2)

-- lexicographical ordering
instance Monoid Ordering where
        mempty         = EQ
        LT `mappend` _ = LT
        EQ `mappend` y = y
        GT `mappend` _ = GT

-- | Lift a semigroup into 'Maybe' forming a 'Monoid' according to
-- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoid>: \"Any semigroup @S@ may be
-- turned into a monoid simply by adjoining an element @e@ not in @S@
-- and defining @e*e = e@ and @e*s = s = s*e@ for all @s ∈ S@.\" Since
-- there is no \"Semigroup\" typeclass providing just 'mappend', we
-- use 'Monoid' instead.
instance Monoid a => Monoid (Maybe a) where
  mempty = Nothing
  Nothing `mappend` m = m
  m `mappend` Nothing = m
  Just m1 `mappend` Just m2 = Just (m1 `mappend` m2)

instance Monoid a => Applicative ((,) a) where
    pure x = (mempty, x)
    (u, f) <*> (v, x) = (u `mappend` v, f x)
\end{code}


%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{Monadic classes @Functor@, @Applicative@, @Monad@ }
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
{- | The 'Functor' class is used for types that can be mapped over.
Instances of 'Functor' should satisfy the following laws:

> fmap id  ==  id
> fmap (f . g)  ==  fmap f . fmap g

The instances of 'Functor' for lists, 'Data.Maybe.Maybe' and 'System.IO.IO'
satisfy these laws.
-}

class  Functor f  where
    fmap        :: (a -> b) -> f a -> f b

    -- | Replace all locations in the input with the same value.
    -- The default definition is @'fmap' . 'const'@, but this may be
    -- overridden with a more efficient version.
    (<$)        :: a -> f b -> f a
    (<$)        =  fmap . const

-- | A functor with application, providing operations to
--
-- * embed pure expressions ('pure'), and
--
-- * sequence computations and combine their results ('<*>').
--
-- A minimal complete definition must include implementations of these
-- functions satisfying the following laws:
--
-- [/identity/]
--
--      @'pure' 'id' '<*>' v = v@
--
-- [/composition/]
--
--      @'pure' (.) '<*>' u '<*>' v '<*>' w = u '<*>' (v '<*>' w)@
--
-- [/homomorphism/]
--
--      @'pure' f '<*>' 'pure' x = 'pure' (f x)@
--
-- [/interchange/]
--
--      @u '<*>' 'pure' y = 'pure' ('$' y) '<*>' u@
--
-- The other methods have the following default definitions, which may
-- be overridden with equivalent specialized implementations:
--
--   * @u '*>' v = 'pure' ('const' 'id') '<*>' u '<*>' v@
--
--   * @u '<*' v = 'pure' 'const' '<*>' u '<*>' v@
--
-- As a consequence of these laws, the 'Functor' instance for @f@ will satisfy
--
--   * @'fmap' f x = 'pure' f '<*>' x@
--
-- If @f@ is also a 'Monad', it should satisfy
--
--   * @'pure' = 'return'@
--
--   * @('<*>') = 'ap'@
--
-- (which implies that 'pure' and '<*>' satisfy the applicative functor laws).

class Functor f => Applicative f where
    -- | Lift a value.
    pure :: a -> f a

    -- | Sequential application.
    (<*>) :: f (a -> b) -> f a -> f b

    -- | Sequence actions, discarding the value of the first argument.
    (*>) :: f a -> f b -> f b
    a1 *> a2 = (id <$ a1) <*> a2
    -- This is essentially the same as liftA2 (const id), but if the
    -- Functor instance has an optimized (<$), we want to use that instead.

    -- | Sequence actions, discarding the value of the second argument.
    (<*) :: f a -> f b -> f a
    (<*) = liftA2 const

-- | A variant of '<*>' with the arguments reversed.
(<**>) :: Applicative f => f a -> f (a -> b) -> f b
(<**>) = liftA2 (flip ($))

-- | Lift a function to actions.
-- This function may be used as a value for `fmap` in a `Functor` instance.
liftA :: Applicative f => (a -> b) -> f a -> f b
liftA f a = pure f <*> a
-- Caution: since this may be used for `fmap`, we can't use the obvious
-- definition of liftA = fmap.

-- | Lift a binary function to actions.
liftA2 :: Applicative f => (a -> b -> c) -> f a -> f b -> f c
liftA2 f a b = fmap f a <*> b

-- | Lift a ternary function to actions.
liftA3 :: Applicative f => (a -> b -> c -> d) -> f a -> f b -> f c -> f d
liftA3 f a b c = fmap f a <*> b <*> c


{-# INLINEABLE liftA #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftA :: (a1->r) -> IO a1 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftA :: (a1->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe r #-}
{-# INLINEABLE liftA2 #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftA2 :: (a1->a2->r) -> IO a1 -> IO a2 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftA2 :: (a1->a2->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe a2 -> Maybe r #-}
{-# INLINEABLE liftA3 #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftA3 :: (a1->a2->a3->r) -> IO a1 -> IO a2 -> IO a3 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftA3 :: (a1->a2->a3->r) ->
                                Maybe a1 -> Maybe a2 -> Maybe a3 -> Maybe r #-}

-- | The 'join' function is the conventional monad join operator. It
-- is used to remove one level of monadic structure, projecting its
-- bound argument into the outer level.
join              :: (Monad m) => m (m a) -> m a
join x            =  x >>= id

{- | The 'Monad' class defines the basic operations over a /monad/,
a concept from a branch of mathematics known as /category theory/.
From the perspective of a Haskell programmer, however, it is best to
think of a monad as an /abstract datatype/ of actions.
Haskell's @do@ expressions provide a convenient syntax for writing
monadic expressions.

Instances of 'Monad' should satisfy the following laws:

* @'return' a '>>=' k  =  k a@
* @m '>>=' 'return'  =  m@
* @m '>>=' (\x -> k x '>>=' h)  =  (m '>>=' k) '>>=' h@

Furthermore, the 'Monad' and 'Applicative' operations should relate as follows:

* @'pure' = 'return'@
* @('<*>') = 'ap'@

The above laws imply that

* @'fmap' f xs  =  xs '>>=' 'return' . f@,
* @('>>') = ('*>')

and that 'pure' and ('<*>') satisfy the applicative functor laws.

The instances of 'Monad' for lists, 'Data.Maybe.Maybe' and 'System.IO.IO'
defined in the "Prelude" satisfy these laws.
-}
class Applicative m => Monad m where
    -- | Sequentially compose two actions, passing any value produced
    -- by the first as an argument to the second.
    (>>=)       :: forall a b. m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b

    -- | Sequentially compose two actions, discarding any value produced
    -- by the first, like sequencing operators (such as the semicolon)
    -- in imperative languages.
    (>>)        :: forall a b. m a -> m b -> m b
    m >> k = m >>= \_ -> k -- See Note [Recursive bindings for Applicative/Monad]
    {-# INLINE (>>) #-}

    -- | Inject a value into the monadic type.
    return      :: a -> m a

    -- | Fail with a message.  This operation is not part of the
    -- mathematical definition of a monad, but is invoked on pattern-match
    -- failure in a @do@ expression.
    fail        :: String -> m a
    fail s      = error s

{- Note [Recursive bindings for Applicative/Monad]
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The original Applicative/Monad proposal stated that after
implementation, the designated implementation of (>>) would become

  (>>) :: forall a b. m a -> m b -> m b
  (>>) = (*>)

by default. You might be inclined to change this to reflect the stated
proposal, but you really shouldn't! Why? Because people tend to define
such instances the /other/ way around: in particular, it is perfectly
legitimate to define an instance of Applicative (*>) in terms of (>>),
which would lead to an infinite loop for the default implementation of
Monad! And people do this in the wild.

This turned into a nasty bug that was tricky to track down, and rather
than eliminate it everywhere upstream, it's easier to just retain the
original default.

-}

-- | Same as '>>=', but with the arguments interchanged.
{-# SPECIALISE (=<<) :: (a -> [b]) -> [a] -> [b] #-}
(=<<)           :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> m a -> m b
f =<< x         = x >>= f

-- | Conditional execution of 'Applicative' expressions. For example,
--
-- > when debug (putStrLn "Debugging")
--
-- will output the string @Debugging@ if the Boolean value @debug@
-- is 'True', and otherwise do nothing.
when      :: (Applicative f) => Bool -> f () -> f ()
{-# INLINEABLE when #-}
{-# SPECIALISE when :: Bool -> IO () -> IO () #-}
{-# SPECIALISE when :: Bool -> Maybe () -> Maybe () #-}
when p s  = if p then s else pure ()

-- | Evaluate each action in the sequence from left to right,
-- and collect the results.
sequence :: Monad m => [m a] -> m [a]
{-# INLINE sequence #-}
sequence ms = foldr k (return []) ms
            where
              k m m' = do { x <- m; xs <- m'; return (x:xs) }

-- | @'mapM' f@ is equivalent to @'sequence' . 'map' f@.
mapM :: Monad m => (a -> m b) -> [a] -> m [b]
{-# INLINE mapM #-}
mapM f as       =  sequence (map f as)

-- | Promote a function to a monad.
liftM   :: (Monad m) => (a1 -> r) -> m a1 -> m r
liftM f m1              = do { x1 <- m1; return (f x1) }

-- | Promote a function to a monad, scanning the monadic arguments from
-- left to right.  For example,
--
-- >    liftM2 (+) [0,1] [0,2] = [0,2,1,3]
-- >    liftM2 (+) (Just 1) Nothing = Nothing
--
liftM2  :: (Monad m) => (a1 -> a2 -> r) -> m a1 -> m a2 -> m r
liftM2 f m1 m2          = do { x1 <- m1; x2 <- m2; return (f x1 x2) }

-- | Promote a function to a monad, scanning the monadic arguments from
-- left to right (cf. 'liftM2').
liftM3  :: (Monad m) => (a1 -> a2 -> a3 -> r) -> m a1 -> m a2 -> m a3 -> m r
liftM3 f m1 m2 m3       = do { x1 <- m1; x2 <- m2; x3 <- m3; return (f x1 x2 x3) }

-- | Promote a function to a monad, scanning the monadic arguments from
-- left to right (cf. 'liftM2').
liftM4  :: (Monad m) => (a1 -> a2 -> a3 -> a4 -> r) -> m a1 -> m a2 -> m a3 -> m a4 -> m r
liftM4 f m1 m2 m3 m4    = do { x1 <- m1; x2 <- m2; x3 <- m3; x4 <- m4; return (f x1 x2 x3 x4) }

-- | Promote a function to a monad, scanning the monadic arguments from
-- left to right (cf. 'liftM2').
liftM5  :: (Monad m) => (a1 -> a2 -> a3 -> a4 -> a5 -> r) -> m a1 -> m a2 -> m a3 -> m a4 -> m a5 -> m r
liftM5 f m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 = do { x1 <- m1; x2 <- m2; x3 <- m3; x4 <- m4; x5 <- m5; return (f x1 x2 x3 x4 x5) }

{-# INLINEABLE liftM #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM :: (a1->r) -> IO a1 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM :: (a1->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe r #-}
{-# INLINEABLE liftM2 #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM2 :: (a1->a2->r) -> IO a1 -> IO a2 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM2 :: (a1->a2->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe a2 -> Maybe r #-}
{-# INLINEABLE liftM3 #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM3 :: (a1->a2->a3->r) -> IO a1 -> IO a2 -> IO a3 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM3 :: (a1->a2->a3->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe a2 -> Maybe a3 -> Maybe r #-}
{-# INLINEABLE liftM4 #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM4 :: (a1->a2->a3->a4->r) -> IO a1 -> IO a2 -> IO a3 -> IO a4 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM4 :: (a1->a2->a3->a4->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe a2 -> Maybe a3 -> Maybe a4 -> Maybe r #-}
{-# INLINEABLE liftM5 #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM5 :: (a1->a2->a3->a4->a5->r) -> IO a1 -> IO a2 -> IO a3 -> IO a4 -> IO a5 -> IO r #-}
{-# SPECIALISE liftM5 :: (a1->a2->a3->a4->a5->r) -> Maybe a1 -> Maybe a2 -> Maybe a3 -> Maybe a4 -> Maybe a5 -> Maybe r #-}

{- | In many situations, the 'liftM' operations can be replaced by uses of
'ap', which promotes function application.

>       return f `ap` x1 `ap` ... `ap` xn

is equivalent to

>       liftMn f x1 x2 ... xn

-}

ap                :: (Monad m) => m (a -> b) -> m a -> m b
ap m1 m2          = do { x1 <- m1; x2 <- m2; return (x1 x2) }
-- Since many Applicative instances define (<*>) = ap, we
-- cannot define ap = (<*>)
{-# INLINEABLE ap #-}
{-# SPECIALISE ap :: IO (a -> b) -> IO a -> IO b #-}
{-# SPECIALISE ap :: Maybe (a -> b) -> Maybe a -> Maybe b #-}

-- instances for Prelude types

instance Functor ((->) r) where
    fmap = (.)

instance Applicative ((->) a) where
    pure = const
    (<*>) f g x = f x (g x)

instance Monad ((->) r) where
    return = const
    f >>= k = \ r -> k (f r) r

instance Functor ((,) a) where
    fmap f (x,y) = (x, f y)


instance  Functor Maybe  where
    fmap _ Nothing       = Nothing
    fmap f (Just a)      = Just (f a)

instance Applicative Maybe where
    pure = Just

    Just f  <*> m       = fmap f m
    Nothing <*> _m      = Nothing

    Just _m1 *> m2      = m2
    Nothing  *> _m2     = Nothing

instance  Monad Maybe  where
    (Just x) >>= k      = k x
    Nothing  >>= _      = Nothing

    (>>) = (*>)

    return              = Just
    fail _              = Nothing

-- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- The Alternative class definition

infixl 3 <|>

-- | A monoid on applicative functors.
--
-- If defined, 'some' and 'many' should be the least solutions
-- of the equations:
--
-- * @some v = (:) '<$>' v '<*>' many v@
--
-- * @many v = some v '<|>' 'pure' []@
class Applicative f => Alternative f where
    -- | The identity of '<|>'
    empty :: f a
    -- | An associative binary operation
    (<|>) :: f a -> f a -> f a

    -- | One or more.
    some :: f a -> f [a]
    some v = some_v
      where
        many_v = some_v <|> pure []
        some_v = (fmap (:) v) <*> many_v

    -- | Zero or more.
    many :: f a -> f [a]
    many v = many_v
      where
        many_v = some_v <|> pure []
        some_v = (fmap (:) v) <*> many_v


instance Alternative Maybe where
    empty = Nothing
    Nothing <|> r = r
    l       <|> _ = l

-- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- The MonadPlus class definition

-- | Monads that also support choice and failure.
class (Alternative m, Monad m) => MonadPlus m where
   -- | the identity of 'mplus'.  It should also satisfy the equations
   --
   -- > mzero >>= f  =  mzero
   -- > v >> mzero   =  mzero
   --
   mzero :: m a
   mzero = empty

   -- | an associative operation
   mplus :: m a -> m a -> m a
   mplus = (<|>)

instance MonadPlus Maybe
\end{code}


%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{The list type}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
instance Functor [] where
    fmap = map

instance Applicative [] where
    pure = return
    (<*>) = ap

instance  Monad []  where
    m >>= k             = foldr ((++) . k) [] m
    m >> k              = foldr ((++) . (\ _ -> k)) [] m
    return x            = [x]
    fail _              = []

instance Alternative [] where
    empty = []
    (<|>) = (++)

instance MonadPlus []
\end{code}

A few list functions that appear here because they are used here.
The rest of the prelude list functions are in GHC.List.

----------------------------------------------
--      foldr/build/augment
----------------------------------------------

\begin{code}
-- | 'foldr', applied to a binary operator, a starting value (typically
-- the right-identity of the operator), and a list, reduces the list
-- using the binary operator, from right to left:
--
-- > foldr f z [x1, x2, ..., xn] == x1 `f` (x2 `f` ... (xn `f` z)...)

foldr            :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b
-- foldr _ z []     =  z
-- foldr f z (x:xs) =  f x (foldr f z xs)
{-# INLINE [0] foldr #-}
-- Inline only in the final stage, after the foldr/cons rule has had a chance
-- Also note that we inline it when it has *two* parameters, which are the
-- ones we are keen about specialising!
foldr k z = go
          where
            go []     = z
            go (y:ys) = y `k` go ys

-- | A list producer that can be fused with 'foldr'.
-- This function is merely
--
-- >    build g = g (:) []
--
-- but GHC's simplifier will transform an expression of the form
-- @'foldr' k z ('build' g)@, which may arise after inlining, to @g k z@,
-- which avoids producing an intermediate list.

build   :: forall a. (forall b. (a -> b -> b) -> b -> b) -> [a]
{-# INLINE [1] build #-}
        -- The INLINE is important, even though build is tiny,
        -- because it prevents [] getting inlined in the version that
        -- appears in the interface file.  If [] *is* inlined, it
        -- won't match with [] appearing in rules in an importing module.
        --
        -- The "1" says to inline in phase 1

build g = g (:) []

-- | A list producer that can be fused with 'foldr'.
-- This function is merely
--
-- >    augment g xs = g (:) xs
--
-- but GHC's simplifier will transform an expression of the form
-- @'foldr' k z ('augment' g xs)@, which may arise after inlining, to
-- @g k ('foldr' k z xs)@, which avoids producing an intermediate list.

augment :: forall a. (forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) -> [a] -> [a]
{-# INLINE [1] augment #-}
augment g xs = g (:) xs

{-# RULES
"fold/build"    forall k z (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
                foldr k z (build g) = g k z

"foldr/augment" forall k z xs (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
                foldr k z (augment g xs) = g k (foldr k z xs)

"foldr/id"                        foldr (:) [] = \x  -> x
"foldr/app"     [1] forall ys. foldr (:) ys = \xs -> xs ++ ys
        -- Only activate this from phase 1, because that's
        -- when we disable the rule that expands (++) into foldr

-- The foldr/cons rule looks nice, but it can give disastrously
-- bloated code when commpiling
--      array (a,b) [(1,2), (2,2), (3,2), ...very long list... ]
-- i.e. when there are very very long literal lists
-- So I've disabled it for now. We could have special cases
-- for short lists, I suppose.
-- "foldr/cons" forall k z x xs. foldr k z (x:xs) = k x (foldr k z xs)

"foldr/single"  forall k z x. foldr k z [x] = k x z
"foldr/nil"     forall k z.   foldr k z []  = z

"foldr/cons/build" forall k z x (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
                           foldr k z (x:build g) = k x (g k z)

"augment/build" forall (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b)
                       (h::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
                       augment g (build h) = build (\c n -> g c (h c n))
"augment/nil"   forall (g::forall b. (a->b->b) -> b -> b) .
                        augment g [] = build g
 #-}

-- This rule is true, but not (I think) useful:
--      augment g (augment h t) = augment (\cn -> g c (h c n)) t
\end{code}


----------------------------------------------
--              map
----------------------------------------------

\begin{code}
-- | 'map' @f xs@ is the list obtained by applying @f@ to each element
-- of @xs@, i.e.,
--
-- > map f [x1, x2, ..., xn] == [f x1, f x2, ..., f xn]
-- > map f [x1, x2, ...] == [f x1, f x2, ...]

map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
{-# NOINLINE [1] map #-}    -- We want the RULE to fire first.
                            -- It's recursive, so won't inline anyway,
                            -- but saying so is more explicit
map _ []     = []
map f (x:xs) = f x : map f xs

-- Note eta expanded
mapFB ::  (elt -> lst -> lst) -> (a -> elt) -> a -> lst -> lst
{-# INLINE [0] mapFB #-}
mapFB c f = \x ys -> c (f x) ys

-- The rules for map work like this.
--
-- Up to (but not including) phase 1, we use the "map" rule to
-- rewrite all saturated applications of map with its build/fold
-- form, hoping for fusion to happen.
-- In phase 1 and 0, we switch off that rule, inline build, and
-- switch on the "mapList" rule, which rewrites the foldr/mapFB
-- thing back into plain map.
--
-- It's important that these two rules aren't both active at once
-- (along with build's unfolding) else we'd get an infinite loop
-- in the rules.  Hence the activation control below.
--
-- The "mapFB" rule optimises compositions of map.
--
-- This same pattern is followed by many other functions:
-- e.g. append, filter, iterate, repeat, etc.

{-# RULES
"map"       [~1] forall f xs.   map f xs                = build (\c n -> foldr (mapFB c f) n xs)
"mapList"   [1]  forall f.      foldr (mapFB (:) f) []  = map f
"mapFB"     forall c f g.       mapFB (mapFB c f) g     = mapFB c (f.g)
  #-}

-- There's also a rule for Map and Data.Coerce. See "Safe Coercions",
-- section 6.4:
--
--   http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/papers/ext-f/coercible.pdf

{-# RULES "map/coerce" [1] map coerce = coerce #-}

\end{code}


----------------------------------------------
--              append
----------------------------------------------
\begin{code}
-- | Append two lists, i.e.,
--
-- > [x1, ..., xm] ++ [y1, ..., yn] == [x1, ..., xm, y1, ..., yn]
-- > [x1, ..., xm] ++ [y1, ...] == [x1, ..., xm, y1, ...]
--
-- If the first list is not finite, the result is the first list.

(++) :: [a] -> [a] -> [a]
{-# NOINLINE [1] (++) #-}    -- We want the RULE to fire first.
                             -- It's recursive, so won't inline anyway,
                             -- but saying so is more explicit
(++) []     ys = ys
(++) (x:xs) ys = x : xs ++ ys

{-# RULES
"++"    [~1] forall xs ys. xs ++ ys = augment (\c n -> foldr c n xs) ys
  #-}

\end{code}


%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{Type @Bool@}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
-- |'otherwise' is defined as the value 'True'.  It helps to make
-- guards more readable.  eg.
--
-- >  f x | x < 0     = ...
-- >      | otherwise = ...
otherwise               :: Bool
otherwise               =  True
\end{code}

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{Type @Char@ and @String@}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
-- | A 'String' is a list of characters.  String constants in Haskell are values
-- of type 'String'.
--
type String = [Char]

unsafeChr :: Int -> Char
unsafeChr (I# i#) = C# (chr# i#)

-- | The 'Prelude.fromEnum' method restricted to the type 'Data.Char.Char'.
ord :: Char -> Int
ord (C# c#) = I# (ord# c#)
\end{code}

String equality is used when desugaring pattern-matches against strings.

\begin{code}
eqString :: String -> String -> Bool
eqString []       []       = True
eqString (c1:cs1) (c2:cs2) = c1 == c2 && cs1 `eqString` cs2
eqString _        _        = False

{-# RULES "eqString" (==) = eqString #-}
-- eqString also has a BuiltInRule in PrelRules.lhs:
--      eqString (unpackCString# (Lit s1)) (unpackCString# (Lit s2) = s1==s2
\end{code}


%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{Type @Int@}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
maxInt, minInt :: Int

{- Seems clumsy. Should perhaps put minInt and MaxInt directly into MachDeps.h -}
#if WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS == 31
minInt  = I# (-0x40000000#)
maxInt  = I# 0x3FFFFFFF#
#elif WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS == 32
minInt  = I# (-0x80000000#)
maxInt  = I# 0x7FFFFFFF#
#else
minInt  = I# (-0x8000000000000000#)
maxInt  = I# 0x7FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF#
#endif
\end{code}


%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{The function type}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
-- | Identity function.
id                      :: a -> a
id x                    =  x

-- Assertion function.  This simply ignores its boolean argument.
-- The compiler may rewrite it to @('assertError' line)@.

-- | If the first argument evaluates to 'True', then the result is the
-- second argument.  Otherwise an 'AssertionFailed' exception is raised,
-- containing a 'String' with the source file and line number of the
-- call to 'assert'.
--
-- Assertions can normally be turned on or off with a compiler flag
-- (for GHC, assertions are normally on unless optimisation is turned on
-- with @-O@ or the @-fignore-asserts@
-- option is given).  When assertions are turned off, the first
-- argument to 'assert' is ignored, and the second argument is
-- returned as the result.

--      SLPJ: in 5.04 etc 'assert' is in GHC.Prim,
--      but from Template Haskell onwards it's simply
--      defined here in Base.lhs
assert :: Bool -> a -> a
assert _pred r = r

breakpoint :: a -> a
breakpoint r = r

breakpointCond :: Bool -> a -> a
breakpointCond _ r = r

data Opaque = forall a. O a

-- | Constant function.
const                   :: a -> b -> a
const x _               =  x

-- | Function composition.
{-# INLINE (.) #-}
-- Make sure it has TWO args only on the left, so that it inlines
-- when applied to two functions, even if there is no final argument
(.)    :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c
(.) f g = \x -> f (g x)

-- | @'flip' f@ takes its (first) two arguments in the reverse order of @f@.
flip                    :: (a -> b -> c) -> b -> a -> c
flip f x y              =  f y x

-- | Application operator.  This operator is redundant, since ordinary
-- application @(f x)@ means the same as @(f '$' x)@. However, '$' has
-- low, right-associative binding precedence, so it sometimes allows
-- parentheses to be omitted; for example:
--
-- >     f $ g $ h x  =  f (g (h x))
--
-- It is also useful in higher-order situations, such as @'map' ('$' 0) xs@,
-- or @'Data.List.zipWith' ('$') fs xs@.
{-# INLINE ($) #-}
($)                     :: (a -> b) -> a -> b
f $ x                   =  f x

-- | Strict (call-by-value) application, defined in terms of 'seq'.
($!)                    :: (a -> b) -> a -> b
f $! x                  = let !vx = x in f vx  -- see #2273

-- | @'until' p f@ yields the result of applying @f@ until @p@ holds.
until                   :: (a -> Bool) -> (a -> a) -> a -> a
until p f = go
  where
    go x | p x          = x
         | otherwise    = go (f x)

-- | 'asTypeOf' is a type-restricted version of 'const'.  It is usually
-- used as an infix operator, and its typing forces its first argument
-- (which is usually overloaded) to have the same type as the second.
asTypeOf                :: a -> a -> a
asTypeOf                =  const
\end{code}

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{@Functor@ and @Monad@ instances for @IO@}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

\begin{code}
instance  Functor IO where
   fmap f x = x >>= (return . f)

instance Applicative IO where
    pure = return
    (<*>) = ap

instance  Monad IO  where
    {-# INLINE return #-}
    {-# INLINE (>>)   #-}
    {-# INLINE (>>=)  #-}
    m >> k    = m >>= \ _ -> k
    return    = returnIO
    (>>=)     = bindIO
    fail s    = failIO s

returnIO :: a -> IO a
returnIO x = IO $ \ s -> (# s, x #)

bindIO :: IO a -> (a -> IO b) -> IO b
bindIO (IO m) k = IO $ \ s -> case m s of (# new_s, a #) -> unIO (k a) new_s

thenIO :: IO a -> IO b -> IO b
thenIO (IO m) k = IO $ \ s -> case m s of (# new_s, _ #) -> unIO k new_s

unIO :: IO a -> (State# RealWorld -> (# State# RealWorld, a #))
unIO (IO a) = a
\end{code}

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{@getTag@}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

Returns the 'tag' of a constructor application; this function is used
by the deriving code for Eq, Ord and Enum.

The primitive dataToTag# requires an evaluated constructor application
as its argument, so we provide getTag as a wrapper that performs the
evaluation before calling dataToTag#.  We could have dataToTag#
evaluate its argument, but we prefer to do it this way because (a)
dataToTag# can be an inline primop if it doesn't need to do any
evaluation, and (b) we want to expose the evaluation to the
simplifier, because it might be possible to eliminate the evaluation
in the case when the argument is already known to be evaluated.

\begin{code}
{-# INLINE getTag #-}
getTag :: a -> Int#
getTag !x = dataToTag# x
\end{code}

%*********************************************************
%*                                                      *
\subsection{Numeric primops}
%*                                                      *
%*********************************************************

Definitions of the boxed PrimOps; these will be
used in the case of partial applications, etc.

\begin{code}
{-# INLINE quotInt #-}
{-# INLINE remInt #-}

quotInt, remInt, divInt, modInt :: Int -> Int -> Int
(I# x) `quotInt`  (I# y) = I# (x `quotInt#` y)
(I# x) `remInt`   (I# y) = I# (x `remInt#`  y)
(I# x) `divInt`   (I# y) = I# (x `divInt#`  y)
(I# x) `modInt`   (I# y) = I# (x `modInt#`  y)

quotRemInt :: Int -> Int -> (Int, Int)
(I# x) `quotRemInt` (I# y) = case x `quotRemInt#` y of
                             (# q, r #) ->
                                 (I# q, I# r)

divModInt :: Int -> Int -> (Int, Int)
(I# x) `divModInt` (I# y) = case x `divModInt#` y of
                            (# q, r #) -> (I# q, I# r)

divModInt# :: Int# -> Int# -> (# Int#, Int# #)
x# `divModInt#` y#
 | isTrue# (x# ># 0#) && isTrue# (y# <# 0#) =
                                    case (x# -# 1#) `quotRemInt#` y# of
                                      (# q, r #) -> (# q -# 1#, r +# y# +# 1# #)
 | isTrue# (x# <# 0#) && isTrue# (y# ># 0#) =
                                    case (x# +# 1#) `quotRemInt#` y# of
                                      (# q, r #) -> (# q -# 1#, r +# y# -# 1# #)
 | otherwise                                =
                                    x# `quotRemInt#` y#

-- Wrappers for the shift operations.  The uncheckedShift# family are
-- undefined when the amount being shifted by is greater than the size
-- in bits of Int#, so these wrappers perform a check and return
-- either zero or -1 appropriately.
--
-- Note that these wrappers still produce undefined results when the
-- second argument (the shift amount) is negative.

-- | Shift the argument left by the specified number of bits
-- (which must be non-negative).
shiftL# :: Word# -> Int# -> Word#
a `shiftL#` b   | isTrue# (b >=# WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS#) = 0##
                | otherwise                          = a `uncheckedShiftL#` b

-- | Shift the argument right by the specified number of bits
-- (which must be non-negative).
-- The "RL" means "right, logical" (as opposed to RA for arithmetic)
-- (although an arithmetic right shift wouldn't make sense for Word#)
shiftRL# :: Word# -> Int# -> Word#
a `shiftRL#` b  | isTrue# (b >=# WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS#) = 0##
                | otherwise                          = a `uncheckedShiftRL#` b

-- | Shift the argument left by the specified number of bits
-- (which must be non-negative).
iShiftL# :: Int# -> Int# -> Int#
a `iShiftL#` b  | isTrue# (b >=# WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS#) = 0#
                | otherwise                          = a `uncheckedIShiftL#` b

-- | Shift the argument right (signed) by the specified number of bits
-- (which must be non-negative).
-- The "RA" means "right, arithmetic" (as opposed to RL for logical)
iShiftRA# :: Int# -> Int# -> Int#
a `iShiftRA#` b | isTrue# (b >=# WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS#) = if isTrue# (a <# 0#)
                                                          then (-1#)
                                                          else 0#
                | otherwise                          = a `uncheckedIShiftRA#` b

-- | Shift the argument right (unsigned) by the specified number of bits
-- (which must be non-negative).
-- The "RL" means "right, logical" (as opposed to RA for arithmetic)
iShiftRL# :: Int# -> Int# -> Int#
a `iShiftRL#` b | isTrue# (b >=# WORD_SIZE_IN_BITS#) = 0#
                | otherwise                          = a `uncheckedIShiftRL#` b

-- Rules for C strings (the functions themselves are now in GHC.CString)
{-# RULES
"unpack"       [~1] forall a   . unpackCString# a             = build (unpackFoldrCString# a)
"unpack-list"  [1]  forall a   . unpackFoldrCString# a (:) [] = unpackCString# a
"unpack-append"     forall a n . unpackFoldrCString# a (:) n  = unpackAppendCString# a n

-- There's a built-in rule (in PrelRules.lhs) for
--      unpackFoldr "foo" c (unpackFoldr "baz" c n)  =  unpackFoldr "foobaz" c n

  #-}
\end{code}


#ifdef __HADDOCK__
\begin{code}
-- | A special argument for the 'Control.Monad.ST.ST' type constructor,
-- indexing a state embedded in the 'Prelude.IO' monad by
-- 'Control.Monad.ST.stToIO'.
data RealWorld
\end{code}
#endif