from __future__ import print_function

doc = r"""
The ``decorator`` module
=============================================================

:Author: Michele Simionato
:E-mail: michele.simionato@gmail.com
:Version: $VERSION ($DATE)
:Supports: Python 2.6, 2.7, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5
:Download page: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/decorator/$VERSION
:Installation: ``pip install decorator``
:License: BSD license

.. contents::

Introduction
-----------------------------------------

The decorator module is over ten years old, but still alive and
kicking. It is used by several frameworks (IPython, scipy, authkit,
pylons, pycuda, sugar, ...) and has been stable for a *long*
time. It is your best option if you want to preserve the signature of
decorated functions in a consistent way across Python
releases. Version 4.0 is fully compatible with the past, except for
one thing: support for Python 2.4 and 2.5 has been dropped. That
decision made it possible to use a single code base both for Python
2.X and Python 3.X. This is a *huge* bonus, since I could remove over
2,000 lines of duplicated documentation/doctests. Having to maintain
separate docs for Python 2 and Python 3 effectively stopped any
development on the module for several years. Moreover, it is now
trivial to distribute the module as an universal wheel_ since 2to3 is no more
required. Since Python 2.5 has been released 9 years ago, I felt that
it was reasonable to drop the support for it. If you need to support
ancient versions of Python, stick with the decorator module version
3.4.2.  This version supports all Python releases from 2.6 up to 3.5,
which currently is still in beta status.

.. _wheel: http://pythonwheels.com/

What's new
---------------------

Since now there is a single manual for all Python versions, I took the
occasion for overhauling the documentation. Therefore, even if you are
an old time user, you may want to read the docs again, since several
examples have been improved. The packaging has been improved and I
am distributing the code in wheel format too. The integration with
setuptools has been improved and now you can use ``python setup.py
test`` to run the tests.  A new utility function ``decorate(func,
caller)`` has been added, doing the same job that in the past was done
by ``decorator(caller, func)``. The old functionality is still there
for compatibility sake, but it is deprecated and not documented
anymore.

Apart from that, there is a new experimental feature. The decorator
module now includes an implementation of generic (multiple dispatch)
functions. The API is designed to mimic the one of
``functools.singledispatch`` (introduced in Python 3.4) but the
implementation is much simpler; moreover all the decorators involved
preserve the signature of the decorated functions. For the moment the
facility is there mostly to exemplify the power of the module. In the
future it could be enhanced/optimized; on the other hand, both its
behavior and its API could change. Such is the fate of experimental
features. In any case it is very short and compact (less then one
hundred lines) so you can extract it for your own use. Take it as food
for thought.

Usefulness of decorators
------------------------------------------------

Python decorators are an interesting example of why syntactic sugar
matters. In principle, their introduction in Python 2.4 changed
nothing, since they do not provide any new functionality which was not
already present in the language. In practice, their introduction has
significantly changed the way we structure our programs in Python. I
believe the change is for the best, and that decorators are a great
idea since:

* decorators help reducing boilerplate code;
* decorators help separation of concerns;
* decorators enhance readability and maintenability;
* decorators are explicit.

Still, as of now, writing custom decorators correctly requires
some experience and it is not as easy as it could be. For instance,
typical implementations of decorators involve nested functions, and
we all know that flat is better than nested.

The aim of the ``decorator`` module it to simplify the usage of
decorators for the average programmer, and to popularize decorators by
showing various non-trivial examples. Of course, as all techniques,
decorators can be abused (I have seen that) and you should not try to
solve every problem with a decorator, just because you can.

You may find the source code for all the examples
discussed here in the ``documentation.py`` file, which contains
the documentation you are reading in the form of doctests.

Definitions
------------------------------------

Technically speaking, any Python object which can be called with one argument
can be used as a decorator. However, this definition is somewhat too large
to be really useful. It is more convenient to split the generic class of
decorators in two subclasses:

+ *signature-preserving* decorators, i.e. callable objects taking a
  function as input and returning a function *with the same
  signature* as output;

+ *signature-changing* decorators, i.e. decorators that change
  the signature of their input function, or decorators returning
  non-callable objects.

Signature-changing decorators have their use: for instance the
builtin classes ``staticmethod`` and ``classmethod`` are in this
group, since they take functions and return descriptor objects which
are not functions, nor callables.

However, signature-preserving decorators are more common and easier to
reason about; in particular signature-preserving decorators can be
composed together whereas other decorators in general cannot.

Writing signature-preserving decorators from scratch is not that
obvious, especially if one wants to define proper decorators that
can accept functions with any signature. A simple example will clarify
the issue.

Statement of the problem
------------------------------

A very common use case for decorators is the memoization of functions.
A ``memoize`` decorator works by caching
the result of the function call in a dictionary, so that the next time
the function is called with the same input parameters the result is retrieved
from the cache and not recomputed. There are many implementations of
``memoize`` in http://www.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary,
but they do not preserve the signature. In recent versions of
Python you can find a sophisticated ``lru_cache`` decorator
in the standard library (in ``functools``). Here I am just
interested in giving an example.

A simple implementation could be the following (notice
that in general it is impossible to memoize correctly something
that depends on non-hashable arguments):

$$memoize_uw

Here i used the functools.update_wrapper_ utility, which has
been added in Python 2.5 expressly to simplify the definition of decorators
(in older versions of Python you need to copy the function attributes
``__name__``, ``__doc__``, ``__module__`` and ``__dict__``
from the original function to the decorated function by hand).

.. _functools.update_wrapper: https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html#functools.update_wrapper

The implementation above works in the sense that the decorator
can accept functions with generic signatures; unfortunately this
implementation does *not* define a signature-preserving decorator, since in
general ``memoize_uw`` returns a function with a
*different signature* from the original function.

Consider for instance the following case:

$$f1

Here the original function takes a single argument named ``x``,
but the decorated function takes any number of arguments and
keyword arguments:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> from decorator import getargspec  # akin to inspect.getargspec
 >>> print(getargspec(f1))
 ArgSpec(args=[], varargs='args', varkw='kw', defaults=None)

This means that introspection tools such as ``pydoc`` will give wrong
informations about the signature of ``f1``, unless you are using
Python 3.5. This is pretty bad: ``pydoc`` will tell you that the
function accepts a generic signature ``*args``, ``**kw``, but when you
try to call the function with more than an argument, you will get an
error:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> f1(0, 1) # doctest: +IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL
 Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
 TypeError: f1() takes exactly 1 positional argument (2 given)

Notice even in Python 3.5 ``inspect.getargspec`` and
``inspect.getfullargspec`` (which are deprecated in that release) will
give the wrong signature.


The solution
-----------------------------------------

The solution is to provide a generic factory of generators, which
hides the complexity of making signature-preserving decorators
from the application programmer. The ``decorate`` function in
the ``decorator`` module is such a factory:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> from decorator import decorate

``decorate`` takes two arguments, a caller function describing the
functionality of the decorator and a function to be decorated; it
returns the decorated function. The caller function must have
signature ``(f, *args, **kw)`` and it must call the original function ``f``
with arguments ``args`` and ``kw``, implementing the wanted capability,
i.e. memoization in this case:

$$_memoize

At this point you can define your decorator as follows:

$$memoize

The difference with respect to the ``memoize_uw`` approach, which is based
on nested functions, is that the decorator module forces you to lift
the inner function at the outer level.
Moreover, you are forced to pass explicitly the function you want to
decorate, there are no closures.

Here is a test of usage:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @memoize
 ... def heavy_computation():
 ...     time.sleep(2)
 ...     return "done"

 >>> print(heavy_computation()) # the first time it will take 2 seconds
 done

 >>> print(heavy_computation()) # the second time it will be instantaneous
 done

The signature of ``heavy_computation`` is the one you would expect:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> print(getargspec(heavy_computation))
 ArgSpec(args=[], varargs=None, varkw=None, defaults=None)

A ``trace`` decorator
------------------------------------------------------

As an additional example, here is how you can define a trivial
``trace`` decorator, which prints a message everytime the traced
function is called:

$$_trace

$$trace

Here is an example of usage:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @trace
 ... def f1(x):
 ...     pass

It is immediate to verify that ``f1`` works

.. code-block:: python

 >>> f1(0)
 calling f1 with args (0,), {}

and it that it has the correct signature:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> print(getargspec(f1))
 ArgSpec(args=['x'], varargs=None, varkw=None, defaults=None)

The same decorator works with functions of any signature:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @trace
 ... def f(x, y=1, z=2, *args, **kw):
 ...     pass

 >>> f(0, 3)
 calling f with args (0, 3, 2), {}

 >>> print(getargspec(f))
 ArgSpec(args=['x', 'y', 'z'], varargs='args', varkw='kw', defaults=(1, 2))

$FUNCTION_ANNOTATIONS

``decorator.decorator``
---------------------------------------------

It may be annoying to write a caller function (like the ``_trace``
function above) and then a trivial wrapper
(``def trace(f): return decorate(f, _trace)``) every time. For this reason,
the ``decorator`` module provides an easy shortcut to convert
the caller function into a signature-preserving decorator: the
``decorator`` function:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> from decorator import decorator
 >>> print(decorator.__doc__)
 decorator(caller) converts a caller function into a decorator

The ``decorator`` function can be used as a signature-changing
decorator, just as ``classmethod`` and ``staticmethod``.
However, ``classmethod`` and ``staticmethod`` return generic
objects which are not callable, while ``decorator`` returns
signature-preserving decorators, i.e. functions of a single argument.
For instance, you can write directly

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @decorator
 ... def trace(f, *args, **kw):
 ...     kwstr = ', '.join('%r: %r' % (k, kw[k]) for k in sorted(kw))
 ...     print("calling %s with args %s, {%s}" % (f.__name__, args, kwstr))
 ...     return f(*args, **kw)

and now ``trace`` will be a decorator.

.. code-block:: python

 >>> trace # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
 <function trace at 0x...>

Here is an example of usage:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @trace
 ... def func(): pass

 >>> func()
 calling func with args (), {}

``blocking``
-------------------------------------------

Sometimes one has to deal with blocking resources, such as ``stdin``, and
sometimes it is best to have back a "busy" message than to block everything.
This behavior can be implemented with a suitable family of decorators,
where the parameter is the busy message:

$$blocking

Functions decorated with ``blocking`` will return a busy message if
the resource is unavailable, and the intended result if the resource is
available. For instance:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @blocking("Please wait ...")
 ... def read_data():
 ...     time.sleep(3) # simulate a blocking resource
 ...     return "some data"

 >>> print(read_data())  # data is not available yet
 Please wait ...

 >>> time.sleep(1)
 >>> print(read_data())  # data is not available yet
 Please wait ...

 >>> time.sleep(1)
 >>> print(read_data())  # data is not available yet
 Please wait ...

 >>> time.sleep(1.1)  # after 3.1 seconds, data is available
 >>> print(read_data())
 some data

``decorator(cls)``
--------------------------------------------

The ``decorator`` facility can also produce a decorator starting
from a class with the signature of a caller. In such a case the
produced generator is able to convert functions into factories
of instances of that class.

As an example, here will I show a decorator which is able to convert a
blocking function into an asynchronous function. The function, when
called, is executed in a separate thread. This is very similar
to the approach used in the ``concurrent.futures`` package. Of
course the code here is just an example, it is not a recommended way
of implementing futures. The implementation is the following:

$$Future

The decorated function returns a ``Future`` object, which has a ``.result()``
method which blocks until the underlying thread finishes and returns
the final result. Here is a minimalistic example of usage:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> futurefactory = decorator(Future)
 >>> @futurefactory
 ... def long_running(x):
 ...     time.sleep(.5)
 ...     return x

 >>> fut1 = long_running(1)
 >>> fut2 = long_running(2)
 >>> fut1.result() + fut2.result()
 3

contextmanager
-------------------------------------

For a long time Python had in its standard library a ``contextmanager``
decorator, able to convert generator functions into
``GeneratorContextManager`` factories. For instance if you write

.. code-block:: python

 >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
 >>> @contextmanager
 ... def before_after(before, after):
 ...     print(before)
 ...     yield
 ...     print(after)


then ``before_after`` is a factory function returning
``GeneratorContextManager`` objects which can be used with
the ``with`` statement:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> with before_after('BEFORE', 'AFTER'):
 ...     print('hello')
 BEFORE
 hello
 AFTER

Basically, it is as if the content of the ``with`` block was executed
in the place of the ``yield`` expression in the generator function.
In Python 3.2 ``GeneratorContextManager``
objects were enhanced with a ``__call__``
method, so that they can be used as decorators as in this example:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @ba # doctest: +SKIP
 ... def hello():
 ...     print('hello')
 ...
 >>> hello() # doctest: +SKIP
 BEFORE
 hello
 AFTER

The ``ba`` decorator is basically inserting a ``with ba:`` block
inside the function.  However there two issues: the first is that
``GeneratorContextManager`` objects are callable only in Python 3.2,
so the previous example will break in older versions of Python (you
can solve this by installing ``contextlib2``); the second is that
``GeneratorContextManager`` objects do not preserve the signature of
the decorated functions: the decorated ``hello`` function here will
have a generic signature ``hello(*args, **kwargs)`` but will break
when called with more than zero arguments. For such reasons the
decorator module, starting with release 3.4, offers a
``decorator.contextmanager`` decorator that solves both problems and
works in all supported Python versions.  The usage is the same and
factories decorated with ``decorator.contextmanager`` will returns
instances of ``ContextManager``, a subclass of
``contextlib.GeneratorContextManager`` with a ``__call__`` method
acting as a signature-preserving decorator.

The ``FunctionMaker`` class
---------------------------------------------------------------

You may wonder about how the functionality of the ``decorator`` module
is implemented. The basic building block is
a ``FunctionMaker`` class which is able to generate on the fly
functions with a given name and signature from a function template
passed as a string. Generally speaking, you should not need to
resort to ``FunctionMaker`` when writing ordinary decorators, but
it is handy in some circumstances. You will see an example shortly, in
the implementation of a cool decorator utility (``decorator_apply``).

``FunctionMaker`` provides a ``.create`` classmethod which
takes as input the name, signature, and body of the function
we want to generate as well as the execution environment
were the function is generated by ``exec``. Here is an example:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> def f(*args, **kw): # a function with a generic signature
 ...     print(args, kw)

 >>> f1 = FunctionMaker.create('f1(a, b)', 'f(a, b)', dict(f=f))
 >>> f1(1,2)
 (1, 2) {}

It is important to notice that the function body is interpolated
before being executed, so be careful with the ``%`` sign!

``FunctionMaker.create`` also accepts keyword arguments and such
arguments are attached to the resulting function. This is useful
if you want to set some function attributes, for instance the
docstring ``__doc__``.

For debugging/introspection purposes it may be useful to see
the source code of the generated function; to do that, just
pass the flag ``addsource=True`` and a ``__source__`` attribute will
be added to the generated function:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> f1 = FunctionMaker.create(
 ...     'f1(a, b)', 'f(a, b)', dict(f=f), addsource=True)
 >>> print(f1.__source__)
 def f1(a, b):
     f(a, b)
 <BLANKLINE>

``FunctionMaker.create`` can take as first argument a string,
as in the examples before, or a function. This is the most common
usage, since typically you want to decorate a pre-existing
function. A framework author may want to use directly ``FunctionMaker.create``
instead of ``decorator``, since it gives you direct access to the body
of the generated function. For instance, suppose you want to instrument
the ``__init__`` methods of a set of classes, by preserving their
signature (such use case is not made up; this is done in SQAlchemy
and in other frameworks). When the first argument of ``FunctionMaker.create``
is a function, a ``FunctionMaker`` object is instantiated internally,
with attributes ``args``, ``varargs``,
``keywords`` and ``defaults`` which are the
the return values of the standard library function ``inspect.getargspec``.
For each argument in the ``args`` (which is a list of strings containing
the names of the mandatory arguments) an attribute ``arg0``, ``arg1``,
..., ``argN`` is also generated. Finally, there is a ``signature``
attribute, a string with the signature of the original function.

Notice: you should not pass signature strings with default arguments,
i.e. something like ``'f1(a, b=None)'``. Just pass ``'f1(a, b)'`` and then
a tuple of defaults:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> f1 = FunctionMaker.create(
 ...     'f1(a, b)', 'f(a, b)', dict(f=f), addsource=True, defaults=(None,))
 >>> print(getargspec(f1))
 ArgSpec(args=['a', 'b'], varargs=None, varkw=None, defaults=(None,))


Getting the source code
---------------------------------------------------

Internally ``FunctionMaker.create`` uses ``exec`` to generate the
decorated function. Therefore
``inspect.getsource`` will not work for decorated functions. That
means that the usual ``??`` trick in IPython will give you the (right on
the spot) message ``Dynamically generated function. No source code
available``.  In the past I have considered this acceptable, since
``inspect.getsource`` does not really work even with regular
decorators. In that case ``inspect.getsource`` gives you the wrapper
source code which is probably not what you want:

$$identity_dec
$$example

.. code-block:: python

 >>> import inspect
 >>> print(inspect.getsource(example))
     def wrapper(*args, **kw):
         return func(*args, **kw)
 <BLANKLINE>

(see bug report 1764286_ for an explanation of what is happening).
Unfortunately the bug is still there, in all versions of Python except
Python 3.5, which is not yet released. There is however a
workaround. The decorated function has an attribute ``__wrapped__``,
pointing to the original function. The easy way to get the source code
is to call ``inspect.getsource`` on the undecorated function:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> print(inspect.getsource(factorial.__wrapped__))
 @tail_recursive
 def factorial(n, acc=1):
     "The good old factorial"
     if n == 0:
         return acc
     return factorial(n-1, n*acc)
 <BLANKLINE>

.. _1764286: http://bugs.python.org/issue1764286

Dealing with third party decorators
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you find on the net some cool decorator that you would
like to include in your code. However, more often than not the cool
decorator is not signature-preserving. Therefore you may want an easy way to
upgrade third party decorators to signature-preserving decorators without
having to rewrite them in terms of ``decorator``. You can use a
``FunctionMaker`` to implement that functionality as follows:

$$decorator_apply

``decorator_apply`` sets the attribute ``__wrapped__`` of the generated
function to the original function, so that you can get the right
source code. If you are using Python 3, you should also set the
``__qualname__`` attribute to preserve the qualified name of the
original function.

Notice that I am not providing this functionality in the ``decorator``
module directly since I think it is best to rewrite the decorator rather
than adding an additional level of indirection. However, practicality
beats purity, so you can add ``decorator_apply`` to your toolbox and
use it if you need to.

In order to give an example of usage of ``decorator_apply``, I will show a
pretty slick decorator that converts a tail-recursive function in an iterative
function. I have shamelessly stolen the basic idea from Kay Schluehr's recipe
in the Python Cookbook,
http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/496691.

$$TailRecursive

Here the decorator is implemented as a class returning callable
objects.

$$tail_recursive

Here is how you apply the upgraded decorator to the good old factorial:

$$factorial

.. code-block:: python

 >>> print(factorial(4))
 24

This decorator is pretty impressive, and should give you some food for
your mind ;) Notice that there is no recursion limit now, and you can
easily compute ``factorial(1001)`` or larger without filling the stack
frame. Notice also that the decorator will not work on functions which
are not tail recursive, such as the following

$$fact

(reminder: a function is tail recursive if it either returns a value without
making a recursive call, or returns directly the result of a recursive
call).

Multiple dispatch
-------------------------------------------

There has been talk of implementing multiple dispatch (i.e. generic)
functions in Python for over ten years. Last year for the first time
something concrete was done and now in Python 3.4 we have a decorator
``functools.singledispatch`` which can be used to implement generic
functions. As the name implies, it has the restriction of being
limited to single dispatch, i.e. it is able to dispatch on the first
argument of the function only.  The decorator module provide a
decorator factory ``dispatch_on`` which can be used to implement generic
functions dispatching on any argument; moreover it can manage
dispatching on more than one argument and, of course, it is
signature-preserving.

Here I will give a very concrete example (taken from a real-life use
case) where it is desiderable to dispatch on the second
argument. Suppose you have an XMLWriter class, which is instantiated
with some configuration parameters and has a ``.write`` method which
is able to serialize objects to XML:

$$XMLWriter

Here you want to dispatch on the second argument since the first, ``self``
is already taken. The ``dispatch_on`` decorator factory allows you to specify
the dispatch argument by simply passing its name as a string (notice
that if you mispell the name you will get an error). The function
decorated is turned into a generic function
and it is the one which is called if there are no more specialized
implementations. Usually such default function should raise a
``NotImplementedError``, thus forcing people to register some implementation.
The registration can be done with a decorator:

$$writefloat

Now the XMLWriter is able to serialize floats:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> writer = XMLWriter()
 >>> writer.write(2.3)
 '<float>2.3</float>'

I could give a down-to-earth example of situations in which it is desiderable
to dispatch on more than one argument (for instance once I implemented
a database-access library where the first dispatching argument was the
the database driver and the second one was the database record),
but here I prefer to follow the tradition and show the time-honored
Rock-Paper-Scissors example:

$$Rock
$$Paper
$$Scissors

I have added an ordinal to the Rock-Paper-Scissors classes to simplify
the implementation. The idea is to define a generic function ``win(a,
b)`` of two arguments corresponding to the moves of the first and
second player respectively. The moves are instances of the classes
Rock, Paper and Scissors; Paper wins over Rock, Scissors wins over
Paper and Rock wins over Scissors. The function will return +1 for a
win, -1 for a loss and 0 for parity. There are 9 combinations, however
combinations with the same ordinal (i.e. the same class) return 0;
moreover by exchanging the order of the arguments the sign of the
result changes, so it is enough to specify directly only 3
implementations:

$$win
$$winRockPaper
$$winPaperScissors
$$winRockScissors

Here is the result:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> win(Paper(), Rock())
 1
 >>> win(Scissors(), Paper())
 1
 >>> win(Rock(), Scissors())
 1
 >>> win(Paper(), Paper())
 0
 >>> win(Rock(), Rock())
 0
 >>> win(Scissors(), Scissors())
 0
 >>> win(Rock(), Paper())
 -1
 >>> win(Paper(), Scissors())
 -1
 >>> win(Scissors(), Rock())
 -1

The point of generic functions is that they play well with subclassing.
For instance, suppose we define a StrongRock which does not lose against
Paper:

$$StrongRock
$$winStrongRockPaper

Then we do not need to define other implementations, since they are
inherited from the parent:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> win(StrongRock(), Scissors())
 1

You can introspect the precedence used by the dispath algorithm by
calling ``.dispatch_info(*types)``:

.. code-block:: python

  >>> win.dispatch_info(StrongRock, Scissors)
  [('StrongRock', 'Scissors'), ('Rock', 'Scissors')]

Since there is no direct implementation for (StrongRock, Scissors)
the dispatcher will look at the implementation for (Rock, Scissors)
which is available. Internally the algorithm is doing a cross
product of the class precedence lists (or Method Resolution Orders,
MRO_ for short) of StrongRock and Scissors respectively.

.. _MRO: http://www.python.org/2.3/mro.html

Generic functions and virtual ancestors
-------------------------------------------------

Generic function implementations in Python are complicated by the
existence of "virtual ancestors", i.e. superclasses which are not in
the class hierarchy.  Consider for instance this class:

$$WithLength

This class defines a ``__len__`` method and as such is
considered to be a subclass of the abstract base class ``collections.Sized``:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> issubclass(WithLength, collections.Sized)
 True

However, ``collections.Sized`` is not in the MRO_ of ``WithLength``, it
is not a true ancestor. Any implementation of generic functions, even
with single dispatch, must go through some contorsion to take into
account the virtual ancestors.

In particular if we define a generic function

$$get_length

implemented on all classes with a length

$$get_length_sized

then ``get_length`` must be defined on ``WithLength`` instances

.. code-block:: python

 >>> get_length(WithLength())
 0

even if ``collections.Sized`` is not a true ancestor of ``WithLength``.
Of course this is a contrived example since you could just use the
builtin ``len``, but you should get the idea.

Since in Python it is possible to consider any instance of ABCMeta
as a virtual ancestor of any other class (it is enough to register it
as ``ancestor.register(cls)``), any implementation of generic functions
must take virtual ancestors into account. Let me give an example.

Suppose you are using a third party set-like class like
the following:

$$SomeSet

Here the author of ``SomeSet`` made a mistake by not inheriting
from ``collections.Set``, but only from ``collections.Sized``.

This is not a problem since you can register *a posteriori*
``collections.Set`` as a virtual ancestor of ``SomeSet``:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> _ = collections.Set.register(SomeSet)
 >>> issubclass(SomeSet, collections.Set)
 True

Now, let us define an implementation of ``get_length`` specific to set:

$$get_length_set

The current implementation, as the one used by ``functools.singledispatch``,
is able to discern that a ``Set`` is a ``Sized`` object, so the more specific
implementation for ``Set`` is taken:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> get_length(SomeSet())  # NB: the implementation for Sized would give 0
 1

Sometimes it is not clear how to dispatch. For instance, consider a
class ``C`` registered both as ``collections.Iterable`` and
``collections.Sized`` and define a generic function ``g`` with
implementations both for ``collections.Iterable`` and
``collections.Sized``. It is impossible to decide which implementation
to use, since the ancestors are independent, and the following function
will raise a RuntimeError when called:

$$singledispatch_example1

This is consistent with the "refuse the temptation to guess"
philosophy. ``functools.singledispatch`` would raise a similar error.

It would be easy to rely on the order of registration to decide the
precedence order. This is reasonable, but also fragile: if during some
refactoring you change the registration order by mistake, a different
implementation could be taken. If implementations of the generic
functions are distributed across modules, and you change the import
order, a different implementation could be taken. So the decorator
module prefers to raise an error in the face of ambiguity. This is the
same approach taken by the standard library.

However, it should be noticed that the dispatch
algorithm used by the decorator module is different from the one used
by the standard library, so there are cases where you will get
different answers. The difference is that ``functools.singledispatch``
tries to insert the virtual ancestors *before* the base classes, whereas
``decorator.dispatch_on`` tries to insert them *after* the base classes.
I will give an example showing the difference:

$$singledispatch_example2

If you play with this example and replace the ``singledispatch`` definition
with ``functools.singledispatch``, the assert will break: ``g`` will return
``"container"`` instead of ``"s"``, because ``functools.singledispatch``
will insert the ``Container`` class right before ``S``.
The only way to understand what is happening here is to scratch your
head by looking at the implementations. I will just notice that
``.dispatch_info`` is quite useful:

.. code-block:: python

  >>> g, V = singledispatch_example2()
  >>> g.dispatch_info(V)
  [('V',), ('Sized',), ('S',), ('Container',)]

The current implementation does not implement any kind of cooperation
between implementations, i.e. there is nothing akin to call-next-method
in Lisp, nor akin to ``super`` in Python.

Finally, let me notice that the decorator module implementation does
not use any cache, whereas the one in ``singledispatch`` has a cache.

Caveats and limitations
-------------------------------------------

One thing you should be aware of, is the performance penalty of decorators.
The worse case is shown by the following example::

 $ cat performance.sh
 python3 -m timeit -s "
 from decorator import decorator

 @decorator
 def do_nothing(func, *args, **kw):
     return func(*args, **kw)

 @do_nothing
 def f():
     pass
 " "f()"

 python3 -m timeit -s "
 def f():
     pass
 " "f()"

On my laptop, using the ``do_nothing`` decorator instead of the
plain function is five times slower::

 $ bash performance.sh
 1000000 loops, best of 3: 1.39 usec per loop
 1000000 loops, best of 3: 0.278 usec per loop

It should be noted that a real life function would probably do
something more useful than ``f`` here, and therefore in real life the
performance penalty could be completely negligible.  As always, the
only way to know if there is
a penalty in your specific use case is to measure it.

More importantly, you should be aware that decorators will make your
tracebacks longer and more difficult to understand. Consider this
example:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @trace
 ... def f():
 ...     1/0

Calling ``f()`` will give you a ``ZeroDivisionError``, but since the
function is decorated the traceback will be longer:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> f() # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
 Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
      File "<string>", line 2, in f
      File "<doctest __main__[22]>", line 4, in trace
        return f(*args, **kw)
      File "<doctest __main__[51]>", line 3, in f
        1/0
 ZeroDivisionError: ...

You see here the inner call to the decorator ``trace``, which calls
``f(*args, **kw)``, and a reference to  ``File "<string>", line 2, in f``.
This latter reference is due to the fact that internally the decorator
module uses ``exec`` to generate the decorated function. Notice that
``exec`` is *not* responsibile for the performance penalty, since is the
called *only once* at function decoration time, and not every time
the decorated function is called.

At present, there is no clean way to avoid ``exec``. A clean solution
would require to change the CPython implementation of functions and
add an hook to make it possible to change their signature directly.
However, at present, even in Python 3.5 it is impossible to change the
function signature directly, therefore the ``decorator`` module is
still useful.  Actually, this is the main reasons why I keep
maintaining the module and releasing new versions.  It should be
noticed that in Python 3.5 a lot of improvements have been made: in
that version you can decorated a function with
``func_tools.update_wrapper`` and ``pydoc`` will see the correct
signature; still internally the function will have an incorrect
signature, as you can see by using ``inspect.getfullargspec``: all
documentation tools using such function (which has been correctly
deprecated) will see the wrong signature.

.. _362: http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362

In the present implementation, decorators generated by ``decorator``
can only be used on user-defined Python functions or methods, not on generic
callable objects, nor on built-in functions, due to limitations of the
``inspect`` module in the standard library, especially for Python 2.X
(in Python 3.5 a lot of such limitations have been removed).

There is a restriction on the names of the arguments: for instance,
if try to call an argument ``_call_`` or ``_func_``
you will get a ``NameError``:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @trace
 ... def f(_func_): print(f)
 ...
 Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
 NameError: _func_ is overridden in
 def f(_func_):
     return _call_(_func_, _func_)

Finally, the implementation is such that the decorated function makes
a (shallow) copy of the original function dictionary:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> def f(): pass # the original function
 >>> f.attr1 = "something" # setting an attribute
 >>> f.attr2 = "something else" # setting another attribute

 >>> traced_f = trace(f) # the decorated function

 >>> traced_f.attr1
 'something'
 >>> traced_f.attr2 = "something different" # setting attr
 >>> f.attr2 # the original attribute did not change
 'something else'

.. _function annotations: http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/
.. _docutils: http://docutils.sourceforge.net/
.. _pygments: http://pygments.org/

LICENSE
---------------------------------------------

Copyright (c) 2005-2015, Michele Simionato
All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
met:

  Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
  notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
  Redistributions in bytecode form must reproduce the above copyright
  notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in
  the documentation and/or other materials provided with the
  distribution.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
"AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
HOLDERS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING,
BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS
OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND
ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR
TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE
USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

If you use this software and you are happy with it, consider sending me a
note, just to gratify my ego. On the other hand, if you use this software and
you are unhappy with it, send me a patch!
"""

function_annotations = """Function annotations
---------------------------------------------

Python 3 introduced the concept of `function annotations`_,i.e. the ability
to annotate the signature of a function with additional information,
stored in a dictionary named ``__annotations__``. The decorator module,
starting from release 3.3, is able to understand and to preserve the
annotations. Here is an example:

.. code-block:: python

 >>> @trace
 ... def f(x: 'the first argument', y: 'default argument'=1, z=2,
 ...       *args: 'varargs', **kw: 'kwargs'):
 ...     pass

In order to introspect functions with annotations, one needs the
utility ``inspect.getfullargspec``, new in Python 3 (and deprecated
in favor of ``inspect.signature`` in Python 3.5):

.. code-block:: python

 >>> from inspect import getfullargspec
 >>> argspec = getfullargspec(f)
 >>> argspec.args
 ['x', 'y', 'z']
 >>> argspec.varargs
 'args'
 >>> argspec.varkw
 'kw'
 >>> argspec.defaults
 (1, 2)
 >>> argspec.kwonlyargs
 []
 >>> argspec.kwonlydefaults

You can check that the ``__annotations__`` dictionary is preserved:

.. code-block:: python

  >>> f.__annotations__ is f.__wrapped__.__annotations__
  True

Here ``f.__wrapped__`` is the original undecorated function. Such an attribute
is added to be consistent with the way ``functools.update_wrapper`` work.
Another attribute which is copied from the original function is
``__qualname__``, the qualified name. This is a concept introduced
in Python 3. In Python 2 the decorator module will still add a
qualified name, but its value will always be ``None``.
"""

import sys
import threading
import time
import functools
import itertools
import collections
import collections as c
from decorator import (decorator, decorate, FunctionMaker, contextmanager,
                       dispatch_on, __version__)

if sys.version < '3':
    function_annotations = ''

today = time.strftime('%Y-%m-%d')

__doc__ = (doc.replace('$VERSION', __version__).replace('$DATE', today)
           .replace('$FUNCTION_ANNOTATIONS', function_annotations))


def decorator_apply(dec, func):
    """
    Decorate a function by preserving the signature even if dec
    is not a signature-preserving decorator.
    """
    return FunctionMaker.create(
        func, 'return decfunc(%(signature)s)',
        dict(decfunc=dec(func)), __wrapped__=func)


def _trace(f, *args, **kw):
    kwstr = ', '.join('%r: %r' % (k, kw[k]) for k in sorted(kw))
    print("calling %s with args %s, {%s}" % (f.__name__, args, kwstr))
    return f(*args, **kw)


def trace(f):
    return decorate(f, _trace)


class Future(threading.Thread):
    """
    A class converting blocking functions into asynchronous
    functions by using threads.
    """
    def __init__(self, func, *args, **kw):
        try:
            counter = func.counter
        except AttributeError:  # instantiate the counter at the first call
            counter = func.counter = itertools.count(1)
        name = '%s-%s' % (func.__name__, next(counter))

        def func_wrapper():
            self._result = func(*args, **kw)
        super(Future, self).__init__(target=func_wrapper, name=name)
        self.start()

    def result(self):
        self.join()
        return self._result


def identity_dec(func):
    def wrapper(*args, **kw):
        return func(*args, **kw)
    return wrapper


@identity_dec
def example():
    pass


def memoize_uw(func):
    func.cache = {}

    def memoize(*args, **kw):
        if kw:  # frozenset is used to ensure hashability
            key = args, frozenset(kw.items())
        else:
            key = args
        if key not in func.cache:
            func.cache[key] = func(*args, **kw)
        return func.cache[key]
    return functools.update_wrapper(memoize, func)


@memoize_uw
def f1(x):
    "Simulate some long computation"
    time.sleep(1)
    return x


def _memoize(func, *args, **kw):
    if kw:  # frozenset is used to ensure hashability
        key = args, frozenset(kw.items())
    else:
        key = args
    cache = func.cache  # attribute added by memoize
    if key not in cache:
        cache[key] = func(*args, **kw)
    return cache[key]


def memoize(f):
    f.cache = {}
    return decorate(f, _memoize)


def blocking(not_avail):
    def _blocking(f, *args, **kw):
        if not hasattr(f, "thread"):  # no thread running
            def set_result():
                f.result = f(*args, **kw)
            f.thread = threading.Thread(None, set_result)
            f.thread.start()
            return not_avail
        elif f.thread.isAlive():
            return not_avail
        else:  # the thread is ended, return the stored result
            del f.thread
            return f.result
    return decorator(_blocking)


class User(object):
    "Will just be able to see a page"


class PowerUser(User):
    "Will be able to add new pages too"


class Admin(PowerUser):
    "Will be able to delete pages too"


def get_userclass():
    return User


class PermissionError(Exception):
    pass


def restricted(user_class):
    def restricted(func, *args, **kw):
        "Restrict access to a given class of users"
        userclass = get_userclass()
        if issubclass(userclass, user_class):
            return func(*args, **kw)
        else:
            raise PermissionError(
                '%s does not have the permission to run %s!'
                % (userclass.__name__, func.__name__))
    return decorator(restricted)


class Action(object):
    """
    >>> a = Action()
    >>> a.view() # ok
    >>> a.insert() # doctest: +IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL
    Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
    PermissionError: User does not have the permission to run insert!
    """
    @restricted(User)
    def view(self):
        pass

    @restricted(PowerUser)
    def insert(self):
        pass

    @restricted(Admin)
    def delete(self):
        pass


class TailRecursive(object):
    """
    tail_recursive decorator based on Kay Schluehr's recipe
    http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/496691
    with improvements by me and George Sakkis.
    """

    def __init__(self, func):
        self.func = func
        self.firstcall = True
        self.CONTINUE = object()  # sentinel

    def __call__(self, *args, **kwd):
        CONTINUE = self.CONTINUE
        if self.firstcall:
            func = self.func
            self.firstcall = False
            try:
                while True:
                    result = func(*args, **kwd)
                    if result is CONTINUE:  # update arguments
                        args, kwd = self.argskwd
                    else:  # last call
                        return result
            finally:
                self.firstcall = True
        else:  # return the arguments of the tail call
            self.argskwd = args, kwd
            return CONTINUE


def tail_recursive(func):
    return decorator_apply(TailRecursive, func)


@tail_recursive
def factorial(n, acc=1):
    "The good old factorial"
    if n == 0:
        return acc
    return factorial(n-1, n*acc)


def fact(n):  # this is not tail-recursive
    if n == 0:
        return 1
    return n * fact(n-1)


def a_test_for_pylons():
    """
    In version 3.1.0 decorator(caller) returned a nameless partial
    object, thus breaking Pylons. That must not happen again.

    >>> decorator(_memoize).__name__
    '_memoize'

    Here is another bug of version 3.1.1 missing the docstring:

    >>> factorial.__doc__
    'The good old factorial'
    """

if sys.version >= '3':  # tests for signatures specific to Python 3

    def test_kwonlydefaults():
        """
        >>> @trace
        ... def f(arg, defarg=1, *args, kwonly=2): pass
        ...
        >>> f.__kwdefaults__
        {'kwonly': 2}
        """

    def test_kwonlyargs():
        """
        >>> @trace
        ... def func(a, b, *args, y=2, z=3, **kwargs):
        ...     return y, z
        ...
        >>> func('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', y='y', z='z', cat='dog')
        calling func with args ('a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'), {'cat': 'dog', 'y': 'y', 'z': 'z'}
        ('y', 'z')
        """

    def test_kwonly_no_args():
        """# this was broken with decorator 3.3.3
        >>> @trace
        ... def f(**kw): pass
        ...
        >>> f()
        calling f with args (), {}
        """

    def test_kwonly_star_notation():
        """
        >>> @trace
        ... def f(*, a=1, **kw): pass
        ...
        >>> import inspect
        >>> inspect.getfullargspec(f)
        FullArgSpec(args=[], varargs=None, varkw='kw', defaults=None, kwonlyargs=['a'], kwonlydefaults={'a': 1}, annotations={})
        """


@contextmanager
def before_after(before, after):
    print(before)
    yield
    print(after)

ba = before_after('BEFORE', 'AFTER')  # ContextManager instance


@ba
def hello(user):
    """
    >>> ba.__class__.__name__
    'ContextManager'
    >>> hello('michele')
    BEFORE
    hello michele
    AFTER
    """
    print('hello %s' % user)


# #######################  multiple dispatch ############################ #


class XMLWriter(object):
    def __init__(self, **config):
        self.cfg = config

    @dispatch_on('obj')
    def write(self, obj):
        raise NotImplementedError(type(obj))


@XMLWriter.write.register(float)
def writefloat(self, obj):
    return '<float>%s</float>' % obj


class Rock(object):
    ordinal = 0


class Paper(object):
    ordinal = 1


class Scissors(object):
    ordinal = 2


class StrongRock(Rock):
    pass


@dispatch_on('a', 'b')
def win(a, b):
    if a.ordinal == b.ordinal:
        return 0
    elif a.ordinal > b.ordinal:
        return -win(b, a)
    raise NotImplementedError((type(a), type(b)))


@win.register(Rock, Paper)
def winRockPaper(a, b):
    return -1


@win.register(Rock, Scissors)
def winRockScissors(a, b):
    return 1


@win.register(Paper, Scissors)
def winPaperScissors(a, b):
    return -1


@win.register(StrongRock, Paper)
def winStrongRockPaper(a, b):
    return 0


class WithLength(object):
    def __len__(self):
        return 0


class SomeSet(collections.Sized):
    # methods that make SomeSet set-like
    # not shown ...
    def __len__(self):
        return 0


@dispatch_on('obj')
def get_length(obj):
    raise NotImplementedError(type(obj))


@get_length.register(collections.Sized)
def get_length_sized(obj):
    return len(obj)


@get_length.register(collections.Set)
def get_length_set(obj):
    return 1


class C(object):
    "Registered as Sized and Iterable"
collections.Sized.register(C)
collections.Iterable.register(C)


def singledispatch_example1():
    singledispatch = dispatch_on('obj')

    @singledispatch
    def g(obj):
        raise NotImplementedError(type(g))

    @g.register(collections.Sized)
    def g_sized(object):
        return "sized"

    @g.register(collections.Iterable)
    def g_iterable(object):
        return "iterable"

    g(C())  # RuntimeError: Ambiguous dispatch: Iterable or Sized?


def singledispatch_example2():
    # adapted from functools.singledispatch test case
    singledispatch = dispatch_on('arg')

    class S(object):
        pass

    class V(c.Sized, S):
        def __len__(self):
            return 0

    @singledispatch
    def g(arg):
        return "base"

    @g.register(S)
    def g_s(arg):
        return "s"

    @g.register(c.Container)
    def g_container(arg):
        return "container"

    v = V()
    assert g(v) == "s"
    c.Container.register(V)  # add c.Container to the virtual mro of V
    assert g(v) == "s"  # since the virtual mro is V, Sized, S, Container
    return g, V


if __name__ == '__main__':
    import doctest
    doctest.testmod()
