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Each has a + long history of successful use, and each approach has use cases where it is + preferred over the other approaches.<br> + </li> + <li>Primary uses:<br> + <ul> + <li>Data portability. The Endian library supports binary data exchange, via either external media or network transmission, + regardless of platform endianness.<br> + </li> + <li>Program portability. POSIX-based and + Windows-based operating systems traditionally supply libraries with + non-portable functions to perform endian conversion. There are at least four + incompatible sets of functions in common use. The Endian library is + portable across all C++ platforms.<br> + </li> +</ul> + + </li> + <li>Secondary use: Minimizing data size via sizes and/or alignments not supported by the + standard C++ arithmetic types.<br> + </li> +</ul> + +<div align="center"> + <center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" bordercolor="#111111" width="90%"> + <tr> + <td width="100%"> + <p align="center"><b><font size="4">Notice</font></b></p> + <p align="left">This first release (1.58.0) of the Endian library as an + official Boost library removes for floating point type support that was + present in the mini-review pre-release. Floating point types will be + supported in the Boost 1.59.0 release with a slightly modified floating + point conversion interface and implementation that addresses reliability + concerns.</td> + </tr> + </table> + </center> +</div> + +<h2><a name="Introduction-to-endianness">Introduction to endianness</a></h2> + +<p>Consider the following code:</p> + +<blockquote> + <pre>int16_t i = 0x0102; +FILE * file = fopen("test.bin", "wb"); // binary file! +fwrite(&i, sizeof(int16_t), 1, file); +fclose(file);</pre> +</blockquote> +<p>On OS X, Linux, or Windows systems with an Intel CPU, a hex dump +of the "test.bin" output file produces:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><code>0201</code></p> +</blockquote> +<p>On OS X systems with a PowerPC CPU, or Solaris systems with a SPARC CPU, a hex dump of the "test.bin" +output file produces:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><code>0102</code></p> +</blockquote> +<p>What's happening here is that Intel CPUs order the bytes of an integer with +the least-significant byte first, while SPARC CPUs place the most-significant +byte first. Some CPUs, such as the PowerPC, allow the operating system to +choose which ordering applies.</p> +<p><a name="definition"></a>Most-significant-byte-first ordering is traditionally called "big endian" +ordering and least-significant-byte-first is traditionally called +"little-endian" ordering. The names are derived from +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift"> +Jonathan Swift</a>'s satirical novel <i> +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulliver's_Travels" title="Gulliver's Travels"> +Gulliver’s Travels</a></i>, where rival kingdoms opened their soft-boiled eggs +at different ends.</p> +<p>See Wikipedia's +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness">Endianness</a> article for an +extensive discussion of endianness.</p> +<p>Programmers can usually ignore endianness, except when reading a core +dump on little-endian systems. But programmers have to deal with endianness when exchanging binary integers and binary floating point +values between computer systems with differing endianness, whether by physical file transfer or over a network. +And programmers may also want to use the library when minimizing either internal or +external data sizes is advantageous.</p> +<h2><a name="Introduction">Introduction</a> to the Boost.Endian library</h2> + +<p>Boost.Endian provides three different approaches to dealing with + +endianness. All three approaches support integers and user-define types (UDTs).</p> + +<p>Each approach has a long history of successful use, and each approach has use +cases where it is preferred to the other approaches.</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><b><a href="conversion.html">Endian conversion functions</a> -</b> The +application uses the built-in integer types to hold values, and calls the +provided conversion functions to convert byte ordering as needed. Both mutating +and non-mutating conversions are supplied, and each comes in unconditional and +conditional variants.</p> + +<p><b><a href="buffers.html">Endian buffer types</a> -</b> The application uses the provided endian +buffer types +to hold values, and explicitly converts to and from the built-in integer types. Buffer sizes of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, and 64 bits (i.e. +1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 bytes) are provided. Unaligned integer buffer types +are provided for all sizes, and aligned buffer types are provided for 16, 32, and +64-bit sizes. The provided specific types are typedefs for a generic class +template that may be used directly for less common use cases.</p> + +<p><b><a href="arithmetic.html">Endian arithmetic types</a> -</b> The +application uses the provided endian arithmetic types, which supply the same +operations as the built-in C++ arithmetic types. All conversions are implicit. +Arithmetic sizes of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, and 64 bits (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, +6, 7, and 8 bytes) are provided. Unaligned integer types are provided for all +sizes and aligned +arithmetic types are provided for 16, 32, and 64-bit sizes. The provided +specific types are typedefs for a generic class template that may be used +directly in generic code of for less common use cases.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Boost Endian is a header-only library. C++11 features +affecting interfaces, such as <code>noexcept</code>, are used only if available. +See <a href="#C++03-support">C++03 support for C++11 features</a> for details.</p> + +<h2><a name="Choosing">Choosing</a> between conversion functions, buffer types, +and arithmetic types</h2> + +<p>This section has been moved to its own <a href="choosing_approach.html"> +Choosing the Approach</a> page. </p> + +<h2>Built-in support for <a name="Intrinsic">Intrinsic</a>s</h2> +<p>Most compilers, including GCC, Clang, and Visual C++, supply built-in support for byte swapping intrinsics. +The Endian library uses these intrinsics when available since they may result in smaller and faster generated code, particularly for +optimized +builds.</p> +<p>Defining the macro <code>BOOST_ENDIAN_NO_INTRINSICS</code> will suppress use +of the intrinsics. This is useful when a compiler has no intrinsic support or +fails to locate the appropriate header, perhaps because it +is an older release or has very limited supporting libraries.</p> +<p>The macro <code>BOOST_ENDIAN_INTRINSIC_MSG</code> is defined as +either <code>"no byte swap intrinsics"</code> or a string describing the +particular set of intrinsics being used. This is useful for eliminating missing +intrinsics as a source of performance issues.</p> + +<h2><a name="Performance">Performance</a></h2> + +<p>Consider this problem:</p> + +<div align="center"> + <center> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" bordercolor="#111111"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"> + <p align="center"><i><b><a name="Example-1">Example 1</a></b></i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><b><i>Add 100 to a big endian value in a file, then write the + result to a file</i> </b> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i><b>Endian arithmetic type approach</b></i></td> + <td><i><b>Endian conversion function approach</b></i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + <pre>big_int32_at x; + +... read into x from a file ... + +x += 100; + +... write x to a file ... +</pre> + </td> + <td> + <pre> +int32_t x; + +... read into x from a file ... + +big_to_native_inplace(x); +x += 100; +native_to_big_inplace(x); + +... write x to a file ... +</pre> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + </center> +</div> + +<p><b>There will be no performance difference between the two approaches in +optimized builds, +regardless of the native endianness of the machine.</b> That's because optimizing compilers will generate exactly the same code for each. That conclusion was confirmed by +studying the generated assembly code for GCC and Visual C++. Furthermore, time +spent doing I/O will determine the speed of this application.</p> + +<p>Now consider a slightly different problem: </p> + +<div align="center"> + <center> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" bordercolor="#111111"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"> + <p align="center"><b><i><a name="Example-2">Example 2</a></i></b></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2"><i><b>Add a million values to a big endian value in a file, then write the + result to a file </b></i> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><i><b>Endian arithmetic type approach</b></i></td> + <td><i><b>Endian conversion function approach</b></i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + <pre>big_int32_at x; + +... read into x from a file ... + +for (int32_t i = 0; i < 1000000; ++i) + x += i; + +... write x to a file ... +</pre> + </td> + <td> + <pre>int32_t x; + +... read into x from a file ... + +big_to_native_inplace(x); + +for (int32_t i = 0; i < 1000000; ++i) + x += i; + +native_to_big_inplace(x); + +... write x to a file ... +</pre> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + + </center> +</div> + +<p>With the Endian arithmetic approach, on little endian platforms an implicit conversion from and then back to +big endian is done inside the loop. With the Endian conversion function +approach, the user has ensured the conversions are done outside the loop, so the +code may run more quickly on little endian platforms.</p> + +<h3><a name="Timings">Timings</a></h3> +<p>These tests were run against release builds on a circa 2012 4-core little endian X64 Intel Core i5-3570K +CPU @ 3.40GHz under Windows 7.</p> + +<p><b>Caveat emptor: The Windows CPU timer has very high granularity. Repeated +runs of the same tests often yield considerably different results.</b></p> + +<p>See <b>test/loop_time_test.cpp</b> for the actual code and <b>benchmark/Jamfile.v2</b> for the build +setup.</p> + + +<div align="center"> + <center> +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"style="border-collapse: collapse" bordercolor="#111111"> +<tr><td colspan="6" align="center"><b>GNU C++ version 4.8.2 on Linux virtual + machine</b></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6" align="center"><b> Iterations: 10'000'000'000, Intrinsics: __builtin_bswap16, etc.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td><b>Test Case</b></td> +<td align="center"><b>Endian<br>arithmetic<br>type</b></td> +<td align="center"><b>Endian<br>conversion<br>function</b></td> +</tr> +<tr><td>16-bit aligned big endian</td><td align="right">8.46 s</td><td align="right">5.28 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>16-bit aligned little endian</td><td align="right">5.28 s</td><td align="right">5.22 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>32-bit aligned big endian</td><td align="right">8.40 s</td><td align="right">2.11 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>32-bit aligned little endian</td><td align="right">2.11 s</td><td align="right">2.10 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>64-bit aligned big endian</td><td align="right">14.02 s</td><td align="right">3.10 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>64-bit aligned little endian</td><td align="right">3.00 s</td><td align="right">3.03 s</td></tr> + +</table> + </center> +</div> +<p></p> + +<div align="center"> <center> +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"style="border-collapse: collapse" bordercolor="#111111"> +<tr><td colspan="6" align="center"><b>Microsoft Visual C++ version 14.0</b></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6" align="center"><b> Iterations: 10'000'000'000, Intrinsics: cstdlib _byteswap_ushort, etc.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td><b>Test Case</b></td> +<td align="center"><b>Endian<br>arithmetic<br>type</b></td> +<td align="center"><b>Endian<br>conversion<br>function</b></td> +</tr> +<tr><td>16-bit aligned big endian</td><td align="right">8.27 s</td><td align="right">5.26 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>16-bit aligned little endian</td><td align="right">5.29 s</td><td align="right">5.32 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>32-bit aligned big endian</td><td align="right">8.36 s</td><td align="right">5.24 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>32-bit aligned little endian</td><td align="right">5.24 s</td><td align="right">5.24 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>64-bit aligned big endian</td><td align="right">13.65 s</td><td align="right">3.34 s</td></tr> +<tr><td>64-bit aligned little endian</td><td align="right">3.35 s</td><td align="right">2.73 s</td></tr> +</table> + </center></div> + + +<h2>Overall <a name="FAQ">FAQ</a></h2> + +<p><b>Is the implementation header only?</b></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Yes.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Are C++03 compilers supported?</b></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Yes.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Does the implementation use compiler intrinsic built-in byte swapping?</b></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Yes, if available. See <a href="#Intrinsic">Intrinsic built-in support</a>.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Why bother with endianness?</b></p> +<blockquote> +<p>Binary data portability is the primary use case.</p> +</blockquote> +<p><b>Does endianness have any uses outside of portable binary file or network +I/O formats?</b> </p> +<blockquote> +<p>Using the unaligned integer types with a size tailored to the application's +needs is a minor secondary use that saves internal or external memory space. For +example, using <code>big_int40_buf_t</code> or <code>big_int40_t</code> in a +large array saves a lot of space compared to one of the 64-bit types.</p> +</blockquote> +<p><b>Why bother with binary I/O? Why not just use C++ Standard Library stream +inserters and extractors?</b></p> +<blockquote> +<p>Data interchange formats often specify binary arithmetic data.</p> +<p>Binary arithmetic data is smaller and therefore I/O is faster and file sizes +are smaller. Transfer between systems is less expensive.</p> +<p dir="ltr">Furthermore, binary arithmetic data is of fixed size, and so fixed-size disk +records are possible without padding, easing sorting and allowing random access.</p> +<p dir="ltr">Disadvantages, such as the inability to use text utilities on the +resulting files, limit usefulness to applications where the binary I/O +advantages are paramount.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Which is better, big-endian or little-endian?</b></p> +<blockquote> +<p>Big-endian tends to be preferred in a networking environment and is a bit +more of an industry standard, but little-endian may be preferred for +applications that run primarily on x86, x86-64, and other little-endian +CPU's. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endian">Wikipedia</a> article +gives more pros and cons.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Why are only big, little, and native endianness supported?</b></p> +<blockquote> +<p>These are the only endian schemes that have any practical value today. PDP-11 +and the other middle endian approaches are interesting historical curiosities +but have no relevance to today's C++ developers.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p><b>Why do both the buffer and arithmetic types exist?</b></p> +<blockquote> +<p>Conversions in the buffer types are explicit. Conversions in the arithmetic +types are implicit. This fundamental difference is a deliberate design feature +that would be lost if the inheritance hierarchy were collapsed.</p> +<p>The original design provided only arithmetic types. Buffer types were +requested during formal review by those wishing total control over when +conversion occurs. They also felt that buffer types would be less likely to be +misused by maintenance programmers not familiar with the implications of +performing a lot of arithmetic operations on the endian arithmetic types.</p> +</blockquote> +<p><b>What is gained by using the buffer types rather than always just using the +arithmetic types?</b></p> +<blockquote> +<p>Assurance than hidden conversions are not performed. This is of overriding +importance to users concerned about achieving the ultimate in terms of speed. </p> +<p>"Always just using the arithmetic types" is fine for other users. When the +ultimate in speed needs to be ensured, the arithmetic types can be used in the +same design patterns or idioms that would be used for buffer types, resulting in +the same code being generated for either types.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p><b>What are the limitations of floating point support?</b></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p><strike>The only supported types are four-byte <code>float</code> and eight-byte +<code>double</code>. The only supported format is +<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_floating_point">IEEE 754</a> (also +know as ISO/IEC/IEEE 60559). Systems on which integer endianness differs from floating point +endianness are not supported.</strike></p> + +<p>Support for floating point types was removed from Boost 1.58.0 because there +was not enough time to resolve reliability concerns. It is expected that +floating point support will be available in Boost 1.59.0.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><b>What are the limitations of integer support?</b></p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>Tests have only been +performed on machines that use two's complement arithmetic. The Endian +conversion functions only support 16, 32, and 64-bit aligned integers. The +endian types only support 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, and 64-bit unaligned integers, +and 8, 16, 32, and 64-bit aligned integers.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<h2><a name="Release-history">Release history</a></h2> +<h3><a name="Changes-requested-by-formal-review">Changes requested by formal review</a></h3> +<p>The library was reworked from top to bottom to accommodate changes requested +during the formal review. See <a href="mini_review_topics.html">Mini-Review</a> +page for details.</p> +<h3><a name="Other-changes-since-formal-review">Other changes since formal +review</a></h3> +<ul> + <li>Header <code>boost/endian/endian.hpp</code> has been renamed to <code> + boost/endian/arithmetic.hpp</code>. Headers + <code>boost/endian/conversion.hpp</code> and <code>boost/endian/buffers.hpp</code> have been + added. + Infrastructure file names were changed accordingly.</li> + <li>The endian arithmetic type aliases have been renamed, + using a naming pattern that is consistent for both integer and floating point, + and a consistent set of aliases supplied for the endian buffer types.</li> + <li>The unaligned-type alias names still have the <code>_t</code> suffix, but + the aligned-type alias names now have an <code>_at</code> suffix..</li> + <li><code>endian_reverse()</code> overloads for <code>int8_t</code> and <code> + uint8_t</code> have been added for improved generality. (Pierre Talbot)</li> + <li>Overloads of <code>endian_reverse_inplace()</code> have been replaced with a single <code> + endian_reverse_inplace()</code> template. (Pierre Talbot)</li> + <li>For X86 and X64 architectures, which permit unaligned loads and stores, + unaligned little endian buffer and arithmetic types use regular loads and + stores when the size is exact. This makes unaligned little endian buffer and + arithmetic types significantly more efficient on these architectures. (Jeremy + Maitin-Shepard)</li> + <li>C++11 features affecting interfaces, such as <code>noexcept</code>, are now used. + C++03 compilers are still + supported.</li> + <li>Acknowledgements have been updated.</li> +</ul> + +<h2><a name="Compatibility">Compatibility</a> with interim releases</h2> + +<p>Prior to the official Boost release, class template <code> +endian_arithmetic</code> has been used for a decade or more with the same +functionality but under the name <code>endian</code>. Other names also changed +in the official release. If the macro <code>BOOST_ENDIAN_DEPRECATED_NAMES</code> +is defined, those old now deprecated names are still supported. However, the +class template <code>endian</code> name is only provided for compilers +supporting C++11 template aliases. For C++03 compilers, the name will have to be +changed to <code>endian_arithmetic</code>.</p> + +<p>To support backward header compatibility, deprecated header <code>boost/endian/endian.hpp</code> +forwards to <code>boost/endian/arithmetic.hpp</code>. It requires <code> +BOOST_ENDIAN_DEPRECATED_NAMES</code> be defined. It should only be used while +transitioning to the official Boost release of the library as it will be removed +in some future release.</p> + +<h2><a name="C++03-support">C++03 support</a> for C++11 features</h2> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" bordercolor="#111111"> + <tr> + <td><b>C++11 Feature</b></td> + <td><b>Action with C++03 Compilers </b></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Scoped enums </td> + <td>Uses header <code class="computeroutput"> + <a href="http://www.boost.org/libs/core/doc/html/core/scoped_enum.html"> + <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">core</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">scoped_enum</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></a></code><span class="identifier"> + to emulate C++11 scoped enums.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><code>noexcept</code></td> + <td><span class="identifier">Uses BOOST_NOEXCEPT macro, which is defined as + null for compilers not supporting this C++11 feature.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>C++11 PODs (<a href="http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2007/n2342.htm">N2342</a>)</td> + <td><span class="identifier">Takes advantage of C++03 compilers that + relax C++03 POD rules, but see Limitations + <a href="buffers.html#Limitations">here</a> and + <a href="arithmetic.html#Limitations">here</a>. Also see macros for explicit + POD control <a href="buffers.html#Compilation">here</a> and + <a href="arithmetic.html#Compilation">here</a>.</span></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<h2><a name="Future-directions">Future directions</a></h2> + +<p><b>Standardization.</b> The plan is to submit Boost.Endian to the C++ +standards committee for possible inclusion in a Technical Specification or the +C++ standard itself.</p> + +<p><b>Specializations for <code>numeric_limits</code>.</b> Roger Leigh +requested that all <code>boost::endian</code> types provide <code>numeric_limits</code> +specializations. See <a href="https://github.com/boostorg/endian/issues/4"> +GitHub issue 4</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Character buffer support.</b> Peter Dimov pointed out during the +mini-review that getting and setting basic arithmetic types (or <code><cstdint></code> +equivalents) from/to an offset into an array of unsigned char is a common need. +See <a href="http://lists.boost.org/Archives/boost/2015/01/219574.php"> +Boost.Endian mini-review posting</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Out-of-range detection.</b> Peter Dimov pointed suggested during the +mini-review that throwing an exception on buffer values being out-of-range might +be desirable. See the end of +<a href="http://lists.boost.org/Archives/boost/2015/01/219659.php">this posting</a> +and subsequent replies.</p> + +<h2><a name="Acknowledgements">Acknowledgements</a></h2> +<p>Comments and suggestions were received from Adder, Benaka Moorthi, +Christopher Kohlhoff, Cliff Green, Daniel James, Gennaro Proto, Giovanni Piero +Deretta, Gordon Woodhull, dizzy, Hartmut Kaiser, Jason Newton, Jeff Flinn, Jeremy Maitin-Shepard, John Filo, John +Maddock, Kim Barrett, Marsh Ray, Martin Bonner, Mathias Gaunard, Matias +Capeletto, Neil Mayhew, Nevin Liber, +Olaf van der Spek, Paul Bristow, Peter Dimov, Pierre Talbot, Phil Endecott, +Philip Bennefall, Pyry Jahkola, +Rene Rivera, Robert Stewart, Roger Leigh, Roland Schwarz, Scott McMurray, Sebastian Redl, Tim +Blechmann, Tim Moore, tymofey, Tomas Puverle, Vincente Botet, Yuval Ronen and +Vitaly Budovsk. Apologies if anyone has been missed.</p> +<hr> +<p>Last revised: +<!--webbot bot="Timestamp" s-type="EDITED" s-format="%d %B, %Y" startspan -->25 March, 2015<!--webbot bot="Timestamp" endspan i-checksum="28920" --></p> +<p>© Copyright Beman Dawes, 2011, 2013</p> +<p>Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. See +<a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt">www.boost.org/ LICENSE_1_0.txt</a></p> + +</body> + +</html>
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