diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'decorator/documentation3.html')
| -rw-r--r-- | decorator/documentation3.html | 430 |
1 files changed, 238 insertions, 192 deletions
diff --git a/decorator/documentation3.html b/decorator/documentation3.html index fce2187..2b41374 100644 --- a/decorator/documentation3.html +++ b/decorator/documentation3.html @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> -<meta name="generator" content="Docutils 0.6: http://docutils.sourceforge.net/" /> +<meta name="generator" content="Docutils 0.5: http://docutils.sourceforge.net/" /> <title>The decorator module</title> <meta name="author" content="Michele Simionato" /> <style type="text/css"> @@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ </head> <body> <div class="document" id="the-decorator-module"> -<h1 class="title">The <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module</h1> +<h1 class="title">The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module</h1> <table class="docinfo" frame="void" rules="none"> <col class="docinfo-name" /> <col class="docinfo-content" /> @@ -83,12 +83,12 @@ <tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">E-mail:</th><td class="field-body"><a class="reference external" href="mailto:michele.simionato@gmail.com">michele.simionato@gmail.com</a></td> </tr> <tr><th class="docinfo-name">Version:</th> -<td>3.2.1 (2010-11-28)</td></tr> +<td>3.3.0 (2011-01-01)</td></tr> <tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">Requires:</th><td class="field-body">Python 2.4+</td> </tr> -<tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">Download page:</th><td class="field-body"><a class="reference external" href="http://pypi.python.org/pypi/decorator/3.2.1">http://pypi.python.org/pypi/decorator/3.2.1</a></td> +<tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">Download page:</th><td class="field-body"><a class="reference external" href="http://pypi.python.org/pypi/decorator/3.3.0">http://pypi.python.org/pypi/decorator/3.3.0</a></td> </tr> -<tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">Installation:</th><td class="field-body"><tt class="docutils literal">easy_install decorator</tt></td> +<tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">Installation:</th><td class="field-body"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">easy_install</span> <span class="pre">decorator</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">License:</th><td class="field-body">BSD license</td> </tr> @@ -97,24 +97,25 @@ <div class="contents topic" id="contents"> <p class="topic-title first">Contents</p> <ul class="simple"> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction" id="id3">Introduction</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#definitions" id="id4">Definitions</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#statement-of-the-problem" id="id5">Statement of the problem</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-solution" id="id6">The solution</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-trace-decorator" id="id7">A <tt class="docutils literal">trace</tt> decorator</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decorator-is-a-decorator" id="id8"><tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> is a decorator</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#blocking" id="id9"><tt class="docutils literal">blocking</tt></a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#async" id="id10"><tt class="docutils literal">async</tt></a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-functionmaker-class" id="id11">The <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> class</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-the-source-code" id="id12">Getting the source code</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dealing-with-third-party-decorators" id="id13">Dealing with third party decorators</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#caveats-and-limitations" id="id14">Caveats and limitations</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compatibility-notes" id="id15">Compatibility notes</a></li> -<li><a class="reference internal" href="#licence" id="id16">LICENCE</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#introduction" id="id4">Introduction</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#definitions" id="id5">Definitions</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#statement-of-the-problem" id="id6">Statement of the problem</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-solution" id="id7">The solution</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#a-trace-decorator" id="id8">A <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span></tt> decorator</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#function-annotations" id="id9">Function annotations</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#decorator-is-a-decorator" id="id10"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> is a decorator</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#blocking" id="id11"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">blocking</span></tt></a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#async" id="id12"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">async</span></tt></a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-functionmaker-class" id="id13">The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> class</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#getting-the-source-code" id="id14">Getting the source code</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#dealing-with-third-party-decorators" id="id15">Dealing with third party decorators</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#caveats-and-limitations" id="id16">Caveats and limitations</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#compatibility-notes" id="id17">Compatibility notes</a></li> +<li><a class="reference internal" href="#licence" id="id18">LICENCE</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="introduction"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id3">Introduction</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Introduction</a></h1> <p>Python decorators are an interesting example of why syntactic sugar matters. In principle, their introduction in Python 2.4 changed nothing, since they do not provide any new functionality which was not @@ -132,17 +133,17 @@ idea since:</p> some experience and it is not as easy as it could be. For instance, typical implementations of decorators involve nested functions, and we all know that flat is better than nested.</p> -<p>The aim of the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module it to simplify the usage of +<p>The aim of the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module it to simplify the usage of decorators for the average programmer, and to popularize decorators by showing various non-trivial examples. Of course, as all techniques, decorators can be abused (I have seen that) and you should not try to solve every problem with a decorator, just because you can.</p> <p>You may find the source code for all the examples -discussed here in the <tt class="docutils literal">documentation.py</tt> file, which contains +discussed here in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">documentation.py</span></tt> file, which contains this documentation in the form of doctests.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="definitions"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id4">Definitions</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Definitions</a></h1> <p>Technically speaking, any Python object which can be called with one argument can be used as a decorator. However, this definition is somewhat too large to be really useful. It is more convenient to split the generic class of @@ -156,7 +157,7 @@ the signature of their input function, or decorators returning non-callable objects.</li> </ul> <p>Signature-changing decorators have their use: for instance the -builtin classes <tt class="docutils literal">staticmethod</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">classmethod</tt> are in this +builtin classes <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">classmethod</span></tt> are in this group, since they take functions and return descriptor objects which are not functions, nor callables.</p> <p>However, signature-preserving decorators are more common and easier to @@ -168,13 +169,13 @@ can accept functions with any signature. A simple example will clarify the issue.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="statement-of-the-problem"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id5">Statement of the problem</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">Statement of the problem</a></h1> <p>A very common use case for decorators is the memoization of functions. -A <tt class="docutils literal">memoize</tt> decorator works by caching +A <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">memoize</span></tt> decorator works by caching the result of the function call in a dictionary, so that the next time the function is called with the same input parameters the result is retrieved from the cache and not recomputed. There are many implementations of -<tt class="docutils literal">memoize</tt> in <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary">http://www.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary</a>, +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">memoize</span></tt> in <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary">http://www.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary</a>, but they do not preserve the signature. A simple implementation could be the following (notice that in general it is impossible to memoize correctly something @@ -184,7 +185,7 @@ that depends on non-hashable arguments):</p> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{}</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">memoize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="c"># frozenset is used to ensure hashability</span> - <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">frozenset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iteritems</span><span class="p">())</span> + <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frozenset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iteritems</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="n">cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache</span> @@ -200,23 +201,23 @@ that depends on non-hashable arguments):</p> <p>Here we used the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/doc/2.5.2/lib/module-functools.html">functools.update_wrapper</a> utility, which has been added in Python 2.5 expressly to simplify the definition of decorators (in older versions of Python you need to copy the function attributes -<tt class="docutils literal">__name__</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">__doc__</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">__module__</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">__dict__</tt> +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__name__</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__module__</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__dict__</span></tt> from the original function to the decorated function by hand).</p> <p>The implementation above works in the sense that the decorator can accept functions with generic signatures; unfortunately this implementation does <em>not</em> define a signature-preserving decorator, since in -general <tt class="docutils literal">memoize_uw</tt> returns a function with a +general <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">memoize_uw</span></tt> returns a function with a <em>different signature</em> from the original function.</p> <p>Consider for instance the following case:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="nd">@memoize_uw</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span> -<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># simulate some long computation</span> +<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># simulate some long computation</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> </pre></div> </div> -<p>Here the original function takes a single argument named <tt class="docutils literal">x</tt>, +<p>Here the original function takes a single argument named <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">x</span></tt>, but the decorated function takes any number of arguments and keyword arguments:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> @@ -227,40 +228,40 @@ keyword arguments:</p> </div> <p>This means that introspection tools such as pydoc will give -wrong informations about the signature of <tt class="docutils literal">f1</tt>. This is pretty bad: +wrong informations about the signature of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f1</span></tt>. This is pretty bad: pydoc will tell you that the function accepts a generic signature -<tt class="docutils literal">*args</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">**kw</tt>, but when you try to call the function with more than an +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">*args</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">**kw</span></tt>, but when you try to call the function with more than an argument, you will get an error:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> -<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> +<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span> -<span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="n">takes</span> <span class="n">exactly</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="n">positional</span> <span class="n">argument</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="n">given</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="ne">TypeError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="n">takes</span> <span class="n">exactly</span> <span class="mf">1</span> <span class="n">positional</span> <span class="n">argument</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2</span> <span class="n">given</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="the-solution"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id6">The solution</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">The solution</a></h1> <p>The solution is to provide a generic factory of generators, which hides the complexity of making signature-preserving decorators -from the application programmer. The <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> function in -the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module is such a factory:</p> +from the application programmer. The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> function in +the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module is such a factory:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decorator</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">decorator</span> </pre></div> </div> -<p><tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> takes two arguments, a caller function describing the +<p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> takes two arguments, a caller function describing the functionality of the decorator and a function to be decorated; it returns the decorated function. The caller function must have -signature <tt class="docutils literal">(f, *args, **kw)</tt> and it must call the original function <tt class="docutils literal">f</tt> -with arguments <tt class="docutils literal">args</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">kw</tt>, implementing the wanted capability, +signature <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">(f,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kw)</span></tt> and it must call the original function <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span></tt> +with arguments <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">args</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">kw</span></tt>, implementing the wanted capability, i.e. memoization in this case:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_memoize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="c"># frozenset is used to ensure hashability</span> - <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">frozenset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iteritems</span><span class="p">())</span> + <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">frozenset</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">iteritems</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">key</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="n">cache</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache</span> <span class="c"># attributed added by memoize</span> @@ -280,7 +281,7 @@ i.e. memoization in this case:</p> </pre></div> </div> -<p>The difference with respect to the <tt class="docutils literal">memoize_uw</tt> approach, which is based +<p>The difference with respect to the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">memoize_uw</span></tt> approach, which is based on nested functions, is that the decorator module forces you to lift the inner function at the outer level (<em>flat is better than nested</em>). Moreover, you are forced to pass explicitly the function you want to @@ -289,7 +290,7 @@ decorate to the caller function.</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="nd">@memoize</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">heavy_computation</span><span class="p">():</span> -<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s">"done"</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heavy_computation</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c"># the first time it will take 2 seconds</span> @@ -300,7 +301,7 @@ decorate to the caller function.</p> </pre></div> </div> -<p>The signature of <tt class="docutils literal">heavy_computation</tt> is the one you would expect:</p> +<p>The signature of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">heavy_computation</span></tt> is the one you would expect:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getargspec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">heavy_computation</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="n">ArgSpec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[],</span> <span class="n">varargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">defaults</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">)</span> @@ -309,9 +310,9 @@ decorate to the caller function.</p> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="a-trace-decorator"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id7">A <tt class="docutils literal">trace</tt> decorator</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8">A <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span></tt> decorator</a></h1> <p>As an additional example, here is how you can define a trivial -<tt class="docutils literal">trace</tt> decorator, which prints a message everytime the traced +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span></tt> decorator, which prints a message everytime the traced function is called:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">_trace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span> @@ -334,10 +335,10 @@ function is called:</p> </pre></div> </div> -<p>It is immediate to verify that <tt class="docutils literal">f1</tt> works</p> +<p>It is immediate to verify that <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f1</span></tt> works</p> <div class="codeblock python"> -<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> -<span class="n">calling</span> <span class="n">f1</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,),</span> <span class="p">{}</span> +<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="n">calling</span> <span class="n">f1</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">,),</span> <span class="p">{}</span> </pre></div> </div> @@ -351,31 +352,79 @@ function is called:</p> <p>The same decorator works with functions of any signature:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="nd">@trace</span> -<span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span> +<span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">y</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">z</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">pass</span> -<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> -<span class="n">calling</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">{}</span> +<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="n">calling</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">args</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">{}</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getargspec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">))</span> -<span class="n">ArgSpec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">'x'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">'y'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">'z'</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">varargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">'args'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">'kw'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">defaults</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span> +<span class="n">ArgSpec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">'x'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">'y'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">'z'</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">varargs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">'args'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">keywords</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">'kw'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">defaults</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">))</span> </pre></div> </div> </div> +<div class="section" id="function-annotations"> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9">Function annotations</a></h1> +<p>Python 3 introduced the concept of <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/">function annotations</a>,i.e. the ability +to annotate the signature of a function with additional information, +stored in a dictionary named <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></tt>. The decorator module, +starting from release 3.3 is able to understand and to preserve the +annotations. Here is an example:</p> +<blockquote> +<pre class="doctest-block"> +>>> @trace +... def f(x: 'the first argument', y: 'default argument'=1, z=2, *args: +'varargs', **kw: 'kwargs'): +... pass +</pre> +<pre class="doctest-block"> +>>> from inspect import getfullargspec +>>> argspec = getfullargspec(f) +>>> argspec.args +['x', 'y', 'z'] +>>> argspec.varargs +'args' +>>> argspec.varkw +'kw' +>>> argspec.defaults +(1, 2) +>>> argspec.kwonlyargs +[] +>>> argspec.kwonlydefaults +>>> sorted(argspec.annotations.items()) +[('args', 'varargs'), ('kw', 'kwargs'), ('x', 'the first argument'), ('y', +'default argument')] +</pre> +</blockquote> +<p>You can also check that the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></tt> dictionary is preserved:</p> +<blockquote> +<pre class="doctest-block"> +>>> f.__annotations__ == f.undecorated.__annotations__ +True +</pre> +</blockquote> +<p>The two dictionaries are different objects, though:</p> +<blockquote> +<pre class="doctest-block"> +>>> id(f.__annotations__) != id(f.undecorated.__annotations__) +True +</pre> +</blockquote> +</div> <div class="section" id="decorator-is-a-decorator"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id8"><tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> is a decorator</a></h1> -<p>It may be annoying to write a caller function (like the <tt class="docutils literal">_trace</tt> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> is a decorator</a></h1> +<p>It may be annoying to write a caller function (like the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">_trace</span></tt> function above) and then a trivial wrapper -(<tt class="docutils literal">def trace(f): return decorator(_trace, f)</tt>) every time. For this reason, -the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module provides an easy shortcut to convert +(<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">def</span> <span class="pre">trace(f):</span> <span class="pre">return</span> <span class="pre">decorator(_trace,</span> <span class="pre">f)</span></tt>) every time. For this reason, +the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module provides an easy shortcut to convert the caller function into a signature-preserving decorator: -you can just call <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> with a single argument. -In our example you can just write <tt class="docutils literal">trace = decorator(_trace)</tt>. -The <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> function can also be used as a signature-changing -decorator, just as <tt class="docutils literal">classmethod</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">staticmethod</tt>. -However, <tt class="docutils literal">classmethod</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">staticmethod</tt> return generic -objects which are not callable, while <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> returns +you can just call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> with a single argument. +In our example you can just write <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">decorator(_trace)</span></tt>. +The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> function can also be used as a signature-changing +decorator, just as <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">classmethod</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></tt>. +However, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">classmethod</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">staticmethod</span></tt> return generic +objects which are not callable, while <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> returns signature-preserving decorators, i.e. functions of a single argument. For instance, you can write directly</p> <div class="codeblock python"> @@ -386,11 +435,11 @@ For instance, you can write directly</p> </pre></div> </div> -<p>and now <tt class="docutils literal">trace</tt> will be a decorator. Actually <tt class="docutils literal">trace</tt> is a <tt class="docutils literal">partial</tt> +<p>and now <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span></tt> will be a decorator. Actually <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span></tt> is a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">partial</span></tt> object which can be used as a decorator:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">trace</span> -<span class="o"><</span><span class="n">function</span> <span class="n">trace</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">...></span> +<span class="o"><</span><span class="n">function</span> <span class="n">trace</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="mf">0</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="o">...></span> </pre></div> </div> @@ -405,12 +454,12 @@ object which can be used as a decorator:</p> </div> <p>If you are using an old Python version (Python 2.4) the -<tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module provides a poor man replacement for -<tt class="docutils literal">functools.partial</tt>.</p> +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module provides a poor man replacement for +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">functools.partial</span></tt>.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="blocking"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id9"><tt class="docutils literal">blocking</tt></a></h1> -<p>Sometimes one has to deal with blocking resources, such as <tt class="docutils literal">stdin</tt>, and +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">blocking</span></tt></a></h1> +<p>Sometimes one has to deal with blocking resources, such as <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">stdin</span></tt>, and sometimes it is best to have back a "busy" message than to block everything. This behavior can be implemented with a suitable family of decorators, where the parameter is the busy message:</p> @@ -431,23 +480,23 @@ where the parameter is the busy message:</p> </pre></div> </div> -<p>Functions decorated with <tt class="docutils literal">blocking</tt> will return a busy message if +<p>Functions decorated with <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">blocking</span></tt> will return a busy message if the resource is unavailable, and the intended result if the resource is available. For instance:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="nd">@blocking</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"Please wait ..."</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">read_data</span><span class="p">():</span> -<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># simulate a blocking resource</span> +<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># simulate a blocking resource</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s">"some data"</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">read_data</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c"># data is not available yet</span> <span class="n">Please</span> <span class="n">wait</span> <span class="o">...</span> -<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">read_data</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c"># data is not available yet</span> <span class="n">Please</span> <span class="n">wait</span> <span class="o">...</span> -<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">read_data</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c"># data is not available yet</span> <span class="n">Please</span> <span class="n">wait</span> <span class="o">...</span> @@ -459,20 +508,20 @@ available. For instance:</p> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="async"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id10"><tt class="docutils literal">async</tt></a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12"><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">async</span></tt></a></h1> <p>We have just seen an examples of a simple decorator factory, implemented as a function returning a decorator. For more complex situations, it is more convenient to implement decorator factories as classes returning callable objects that can be used as signature-preserving decorators. The suggested pattern to do that is to introduce -a helper method <tt class="docutils literal">call(self, func, *args, **kw)</tt> and to call -it in the <tt class="docutils literal">__call__(self, func)</tt> method.</p> +a helper method <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">call(self,</span> <span class="pre">func,</span> <span class="pre">*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kw)</span></tt> and to call +it in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__call__(self,</span> <span class="pre">func)</span></tt> method.</p> <p>As an example, here I show a decorator which is able to convert a blocking function into an asynchronous function. The function, when called, is executed in a separate thread. Moreover, it is possible to set -three callbacks <tt class="docutils literal">on_success</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">on_failure</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">on_closing</tt>, +three callbacks <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">on_success</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">on_failure</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">on_closing</span></tt>, to specify how to manage the function call. The implementation is the following:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> @@ -512,7 +561,7 @@ The implementation is the following:</p> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__call__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">on_success</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">on_success</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">on_failure</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">on_failure</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">on_closing</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">on_closing</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c"># every decorated function has its own independent thread counter</span> - <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> + <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">itertools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_success</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">on_success</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_failure</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">on_failure</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_closing</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">on_closing</span> @@ -528,7 +577,7 @@ The implementation is the following:</p> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_success</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">result</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">finally</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">on_closing</span><span class="p">()</span> - <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">'</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s">-</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s">'</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">))</span> + <span class="n">name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">'</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s">-</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s">'</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__name__</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">counter</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="n">thread</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">threadfactory</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func_wrapper</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">thread</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">thread</span> @@ -537,7 +586,7 @@ The implementation is the following:</p> </div> <p>The decorated function returns the current execution thread, which can be stored and checked later, for -instance to verify that the thread <tt class="docutils literal">.isAlive()</tt>.</p> +instance to verify that the thread <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">.isAlive()</span></tt>.</p> <p>Here is an example of usage. Suppose one wants to write some data to an external resource which can be accessed by a single user at once (for instance a printer). Then the access to the writing function must @@ -551,24 +600,24 @@ be locked. Here is a minimalistic example:</p> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="c"># append data to the datalist by locking</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">threading</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Lock</span><span class="p">():</span> -<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># emulate some long running operation</span> +<span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># emulate some long running operation</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="n">datalist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">data</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="c"># other operations not requiring a lock here</span> </pre></div> </div> -<p>Each call to <tt class="docutils literal">write</tt> will create a new writer thread, but there will -be no synchronization problems since <tt class="docutils literal">write</tt> is locked.</p> +<p>Each call to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">write</span></tt> will create a new writer thread, but there will +be no synchronization problems since <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">write</span></tt> is locked.</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"data1"</span><span class="p">)</span> -<span class="o"><</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">started</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">></span> +<span class="o"><</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">started</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">></span> -<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># wait a bit, so we are sure data2 is written after data1</span> +<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># wait a bit, so we are sure data2 is written after data1</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"data2"</span><span class="p">)</span> -<span class="o"><</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">started</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">></span> +<span class="o"><</span><span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">started</span><span class="o">...</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">></span> -<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># wait for the writers to complete</span> +<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sleep</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c"># wait for the writers to complete</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">datalist</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s">'data1'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">'data2'</span><span class="p">]</span> @@ -577,38 +626,38 @@ be no synchronization problems since <tt class="docutils literal">write</tt> is </div> </div> <div class="section" id="the-functionmaker-class"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id11">The <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> class</a></h1> -<p>You may wonder about how the functionality of the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> class</a></h1> +<p>You may wonder about how the functionality of the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module is implemented. The basic building block is -a <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> class which is able to generate on the fly +a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> class which is able to generate on the fly functions with a given name and signature from a function template passed as a string. Generally speaking, you should not need to -resort to <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> when writing ordinary decorators, but +resort to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> when writing ordinary decorators, but it is handy in some circumstances. You will see an example shortly, in -the implementation of a cool decorator utility (<tt class="docutils literal">decorator_apply</tt>).</p> -<p><tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> provides a <tt class="docutils literal">.create</tt> classmethod which +the implementation of a cool decorator utility (<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator_apply</span></tt>).</p> +<p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> provides a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">.create</span></tt> classmethod which takes as input the name, signature, and body of the function we want to generate as well as the execution environment -were the function is generated by <tt class="docutils literal">exec</tt>. Here is an example:</p> +were the function is generated by <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">exec</span></tt>. Here is an example:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c"># a function with a generic signature</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">FunctionMaker</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">'f1(a, b)'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">'f(a, b)'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">))</span> -<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> -<span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{}</span> +<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">)</span> +<span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{}</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>It is important to notice that the function body is interpolated -before being executed, so be careful with the <tt class="docutils literal">%</tt> sign!</p> -<p><tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker.create</tt> also accepts keyword arguments and such +before being executed, so be careful with the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">%</span></tt> sign!</p> +<p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker.create</span></tt> also accepts keyword arguments and such arguments are attached to the resulting function. This is useful if you want to set some function attributes, for instance the -docstring <tt class="docutils literal">__doc__</tt>.</p> +docstring <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></tt>.</p> <p>For debugging/introspection purposes it may be useful to see the source code of the generated function; to do that, just -pass the flag <tt class="docutils literal">addsource=True</tt> and a <tt class="docutils literal">__source__</tt> attribute will +pass the flag <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">addsource=True</span></tt> and a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__source__</span></tt> attribute will be added to the generated function:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">FunctionMaker</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">create</span><span class="p">(</span> @@ -620,44 +669,44 @@ be added to the generated function:</p> </pre></div> </div> -<p><tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker.create</tt> can take as first argument a string, +<p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker.create</span></tt> can take as first argument a string, as in the examples before, or a function. This is the most common usage, since typically you want to decorate a pre-existing -function. A framework author may want to use directly <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker.create</tt> -instead of <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt>, since it gives you direct access to the body +function. A framework author may want to use directly <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker.create</span></tt> +instead of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt>, since it gives you direct access to the body of the generated function. For instance, suppose you want to instrument -the <tt class="docutils literal">__init__</tt> methods of a set of classes, by preserving their +the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__init__</span></tt> methods of a set of classes, by preserving their signature (such use case is not made up; this is done in SQAlchemy -and in other frameworks). When the first argument of <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker.create</tt> -is a function, a <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> object is instantiated internally, -with attributes <tt class="docutils literal">args</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">varargs</tt>, -<tt class="docutils literal">keywords</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">defaults</tt> which are the -the return values of the standard library function <tt class="docutils literal">inspect.getargspec</tt>. -For each argument in the <tt class="docutils literal">args</tt> (which is a list of strings containing -the names of the mandatory arguments) an attribute <tt class="docutils literal">arg0</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">arg1</tt>, -..., <tt class="docutils literal">argN</tt> is also generated. Finally, there is a <tt class="docutils literal">signature</tt> +and in other frameworks). When the first argument of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker.create</span></tt> +is a function, a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> object is instantiated internally, +with attributes <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">args</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">varargs</span></tt>, +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">keywords</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">defaults</span></tt> which are the +the return values of the standard library function <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">inspect.getargspec</span></tt>. +For each argument in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">args</span></tt> (which is a list of strings containing +the names of the mandatory arguments) an attribute <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">arg0</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">arg1</span></tt>, +..., <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">argN</span></tt> is also generated. Finally, there is a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">signature</span></tt> attribute, a string with the signature of the original function.</p> <p>Notice that while I do not have plans to change or remove the functionality provided in the -<tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> class, I do not guarantee that it will stay +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> class, I do not guarantee that it will stay unchanged forever. For instance, right now I am using the traditional string interpolation syntax for function templates, but Python 2.6 and Python 3.0 provide a newer interpolation syntax and I may use the new syntax in the future. On the other hand, the functionality provided by -<tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> has been there from version 0.1 and it is guaranteed to +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> has been there from version 0.1 and it is guaranteed to stay there forever.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="getting-the-source-code"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id12">Getting the source code</a></h1> -<p>Internally <tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker.create</tt> uses <tt class="docutils literal">exec</tt> to generate the +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">Getting the source code</a></h1> +<p>Internally <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker.create</span></tt> uses <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">exec</span></tt> to generate the decorated function. Therefore -<tt class="docutils literal">inspect.getsource</tt> will not work for decorated functions. That +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">inspect.getsource</span></tt> will not work for decorated functions. That means that the usual '??' trick in IPython will give you the (right on -the spot) message <tt class="docutils literal">Dynamically generated function. No source code -available</tt>. In the past I have considered this acceptable, since -<tt class="docutils literal">inspect.getsource</tt> does not really work even with regular -decorators. In that case <tt class="docutils literal">inspect.getsource</tt> gives you the wrapper +the spot) message <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">Dynamically</span> <span class="pre">generated</span> <span class="pre">function.</span> <span class="pre">No</span> <span class="pre">source</span> <span class="pre">code</span> +<span class="pre">available</span></tt>. In the past I have considered this acceptable, since +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">inspect.getsource</span></tt> does not really work even with regular +decorators. In that case <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">inspect.getsource</span></tt> gives you the wrapper source code which is probably not what you want:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">identity_dec</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">):</span> @@ -681,30 +730,30 @@ source code which is probably not what you want:</p> <p>(see bug report <a class="reference external" href="http://bugs.python.org/issue1764286">1764286</a> for an explanation of what is happening). Unfortunately the bug is still there, even in Python 2.7 and 3.1. There is however a workaround. The decorator module adds an -attribute <tt class="docutils literal">.undecorated</tt> to the decorated function, containing +attribute <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">.undecorated</span></tt> to the decorated function, containing a reference to the original function. The easy way to get -the source code is to call <tt class="docutils literal">inspect.getsource</tt> on the +the source code is to call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">inspect.getsource</span></tt> on the undecorated function:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getsource</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">undecorated</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="nd">@tail_recursive</span> -<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span> +<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="s">"The good old factorial"</span> - <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">acc</span> - <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="p">)</span> + <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">acc</span> + <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span><span class="n">BLANKLINE</span><span class="o">></span> </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="dealing-with-third-party-decorators"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id13">Dealing with third party decorators</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">Dealing with third party decorators</a></h1> <p>Sometimes you find on the net some cool decorator that you would like to include in your code. However, more often than not the cool decorator is not signature-preserving. Therefore you may want an easy way to upgrade third party decorators to signature-preserving decorators without -having to rewrite them in terms of <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt>. You can use a -<tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt> to implement that functionality as follows:</p> +having to rewrite them in terms of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt>. You can use a +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt> to implement that functionality as follows:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">decorator_apply</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dec</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">func</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="sd">"""</span> @@ -717,15 +766,15 @@ having to rewrite them in terms of <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt>. </pre></div> </div> -<p><tt class="docutils literal">decorator_apply</tt> sets the attribute <tt class="docutils literal">.undecorated</tt> of the generated +<p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator_apply</span></tt> sets the attribute <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">.undecorated</span></tt> of the generated function to the original function, so that you can get the right source code.</p> -<p>Notice that I am not providing this functionality in the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> +<p>Notice that I am not providing this functionality in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module directly since I think it is best to rewrite the decorator rather than adding an additional level of indirection. However, practicality -beats purity, so you can add <tt class="docutils literal">decorator_apply</tt> to your toolbox and +beats purity, so you can add <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator_apply</span></tt> to your toolbox and use it if you need to.</p> -<p>In order to give an example of usage of <tt class="docutils literal">decorator_apply</tt>, I will show a +<p>In order to give an example of usage of <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator_apply</span></tt>, I will show a pretty slick decorator that converts a tail-recursive function in an iterative function. I have shamelessly stolen the basic idea from Kay Schluehr's recipe in the Python Cookbook, @@ -774,28 +823,28 @@ objects.</p> <p>Here is how you apply the upgraded decorator to the good old factorial:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="nd">@tail_recursive</span> -<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">):</span> +<span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">acc</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="s">"The good old factorial"</span> - <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">acc</span> - <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="p">)</span> + <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">acc</span> + <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">acc</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="codeblock python"> -<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span> -<span class="mi">24</span> +<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">factorial</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">4</span><span class="p">))</span> +<span class="mf">24</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This decorator is pretty impressive, and should give you some food for your mind ;) Notice that there is no recursion limit now, and you can -easily compute <tt class="docutils literal">factorial(1001)</tt> or larger without filling the stack +easily compute <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">factorial(1001)</span></tt> or larger without filling the stack frame. Notice also that the decorator will not work on functions which are not tail recursive, such as the following</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fact</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c"># this is not tail-recursive</span> - <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span> - <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> + <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mf">1</span> + <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">fact</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mf">1</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> @@ -804,7 +853,7 @@ making a recursive call, or returns directly the result of a recursive call).</p> </div> <div class="section" id="caveats-and-limitations"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id14">Caveats and limitations</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">Caveats and limitations</a></h1> <p>The first thing you should be aware of, it the fact that decorators have a performance penalty. The worse case is shown by the following example:</p> @@ -827,7 +876,7 @@ def f(): pass " "f()" </pre> -<p>On my MacBook, using the <tt class="docutils literal">do_nothing</tt> decorator instead of the +<p>On my MacBook, using the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">do_nothing</span></tt> decorator instead of the plain function is more than three times slower:</p> <pre class="literal-block"> $ bash performance.sh @@ -835,7 +884,7 @@ $ bash performance.sh 1000000 loops, best of 3: 0.181 usec per loop </pre> <p>It should be noted that a real life function would probably do -something more useful than <tt class="docutils literal">f</tt> here, and therefore in real life the +something more useful than <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span></tt> here, and therefore in real life the performance penalty could be completely negligible. As always, the only way to know if there is a penalty in your specific use case is to measure it.</p> @@ -844,48 +893,48 @@ longer and more difficult to understand. Consider this example:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="nd">@trace</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> -<span class="o">...</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span> +<span class="o">...</span> <span class="mf">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mf">0</span> </pre></div> </div> -<p>Calling <tt class="docutils literal">f()</tt> will give you a <tt class="docutils literal">ZeroDivisionError</tt>, but since the +<p>Calling <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f()</span></tt> will give you a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ZeroDivisionError</span></tt>, but since the function is decorated the traceback will be longer:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="n">Traceback</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">most</span> <span class="n">recent</span> <span class="n">call</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span> - <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s">"<string>"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span> - <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s">"<doctest __main__[22]>"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">trace</span> + <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s">"<string>"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mf">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span> + <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s">"<doctest __main__[22]>"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mf">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">trace</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">kw</span><span class="p">)</span> - <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s">"<doctest __main__[51]>"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span> - <span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mi">0</span> + <span class="n">File</span> <span class="s">"<doctest __main__[51]>"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="mf">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span> + <span class="mf">1</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mf">0</span> <span class="ne">ZeroDivisionError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">int</span> <span class="n">division</span> <span class="ow">or</span> <span class="n">modulo</span> <span class="n">by</span> <span class="n">zero</span> </pre></div> </div> -<p>You see here the inner call to the decorator <tt class="docutils literal">trace</tt>, which calls -<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(*args,</span> **kw)</tt>, and a reference to <tt class="docutils literal">File <span class="pre">"<string>",</span> line 2, in f</tt>. +<p>You see here the inner call to the decorator <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">trace</span></tt>, which calls +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(*args,</span> <span class="pre">**kw)</span></tt>, and a reference to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">File</span> <span class="pre">"<string>",</span> <span class="pre">line</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">f</span></tt>. This latter reference is due to the fact that internally the decorator -module uses <tt class="docutils literal">exec</tt> to generate the decorated function. Notice that -<tt class="docutils literal">exec</tt> is <em>not</em> responsibile for the performance penalty, since is the +module uses <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">exec</span></tt> to generate the decorated function. Notice that +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">exec</span></tt> is <em>not</em> responsibile for the performance penalty, since is the called <em>only once</em> at function decoration time, and not every time the decorated function is called.</p> -<p>At present, there is no clean way to avoid <tt class="docutils literal">exec</tt>. A clean solution +<p>At present, there is no clean way to avoid <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">exec</span></tt>. A clean solution would require to change the CPython implementation of functions and add an hook to make it possible to change their signature directly. That could happen in future versions of Python (see PEP <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0362">362</a>) and then the decorator module would become obsolete. However, at present, even in Python 3.1 it is impossible to change the function signature -directly, therefore the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module is still useful. +directly, therefore the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module is still useful. Actually, this is one of the main reasons why I keep maintaining the module and releasing new versions.</p> -<p>In the present implementation, decorators generated by <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> +<p>In the present implementation, decorators generated by <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> can only be used on user-defined Python functions or methods, not on generic callable objects, nor on built-in functions, due to limitations of the -<tt class="docutils literal">inspect</tt> module in the standard library.</p> +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">inspect</span></tt> module in the standard library.</p> <p>There is a restriction on the names of the arguments: for instance, -if try to call an argument <tt class="docutils literal">_call_</tt> or <tt class="docutils literal">_func_</tt> -you will get a <tt class="docutils literal">NameError</tt>:</p> +if try to call an argument <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">_call_</span></tt> or <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">_func_</span></tt> +you will get a <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">NameError</span></tt>:</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="nd">@trace</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">_func_</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span> @@ -900,7 +949,7 @@ you will get a <tt class="docutils literal">NameError</tt>:</p> </div> <p>Finally, the implementation is such that the decorated function contains a <em>copy</em> of the original function dictionary -(<tt class="docutils literal">vars(decorated_f) is not vars(f)</tt>):</p> +(<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">vars(decorated_f)</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">vars(f)</span></tt>):</p> <div class="codeblock python"> <div class="highlight"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">pass</span> <span class="c"># the original function</span> <span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">attr1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"something"</span> <span class="c"># setting an attribute</span> @@ -918,50 +967,47 @@ a <em>copy</em> of the original function dictionary </div> </div> <div class="section" id="compatibility-notes"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id15">Compatibility notes</a></h1> -<p>Version 3.2 is the first version of the <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module to officially -support Python 3. Actually, the module has supported Python 3 from -the beginning, via the <tt class="docutils literal">2to3</tt> conversion tool, but this step has -been now integrated in the build process, thanks to the <a class="reference external" href="http://packages.python.org/distribute/">distribute</a> -project, the Python 3-compatible replacement of easy_install. -The hard work (for me) has been converting the documentation and the -doctests. This has been possible only now that <a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net/">docutils</a> and <a class="reference external" href="http://pygments.org/">pygments</a> -have been ported to Python 3.</p> -<p>The <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> module <em>per se</em> does not contain any change, apart -from the removal of the functions <tt class="docutils literal">get_info</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">new_wrapper</tt>, -which have been deprecated for years. <tt class="docutils literal">get_info</tt> has been removed -since it was little used and since it had to be changed anyway to work -with Python 3.0; <tt class="docutils literal">new_wrapper</tt> has been removed since it was -useless: its major use case (converting signature changing decorators -to signature preserving decorators) has been subsumed by -<tt class="docutils literal">decorator_apply</tt> and the other use case can be managed with the -<tt class="docutils literal">FunctionMaker</tt>.</p> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id17">Compatibility notes</a></h1> +<p>Version 3.3 is the first version of the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module to fully +support Python 3, including <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/">function annotations</a>. Version 3.2 was the +first version to support Python 3 via the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">2to3</span></tt> conversion tool +invoked in the build process by the <a class="reference external" href="http://packages.python.org/distribute/">distribute</a> project, the Python +3-compatible replacement of easy_install. The hard work (for me) has +been converting the documentation and the doctests. This has been +possible only after that <a class="reference external" href="http://docutils.sourceforge.net/">docutils</a> and <a class="reference external" href="http://pygments.org/">pygments</a> have been ported to +Python 3.</p> +<p>Version 3 of the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> module do not contain any backward +incompatible change, apart from the removal of the functions +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">get_info</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">new_wrapper</span></tt>, which have been deprecated for +years. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">get_info</span></tt> has been removed since it was little used and +since it had to be changed anyway to work with Python 3.0; +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">new_wrapper</span></tt> has been removed since it was useless: its major use +case (converting signature changing decorators to signature preserving +decorators) has been subsumed by <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator_apply</span></tt>, whereas the other use +case can be managed with the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">FunctionMaker</span></tt>.</p> <p>There are a few changes in the documentation: I removed the -<tt class="docutils literal">decorator_factory</tt> example, which was confusing some of my users, +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator_factory</span></tt> example, which was confusing some of my users, and I removed the part about exotic signatures in the Python 3 -documentation, since Python 3 does not support them. -Notice that there is no support for Python 3 <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/">function annotations</a> -since it seems premature at the moment, when most people are -still using Python 2.X.</p> -<p>Finally <tt class="docutils literal">decorator</tt> cannot be used as a class decorator and the +documentation, since Python 3 does not support them.</p> +<p>Finally <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">decorator</span></tt> cannot be used as a class decorator and the <a class="reference external" href="http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/python/documentation.html#class-decorators-and-decorator-factories">functionality introduced in version 2.3</a> has been removed. That means that in order to define decorator factories with classes you -need to define the <tt class="docutils literal">__call__</tt> method explicitly (no magic anymore). +need to define the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__call__</span></tt> method explicitly (no magic anymore). All these changes should not cause any trouble, since they were all rarely used features. Should you have any trouble, you can always downgrade to the 2.3 version.</p> <p>The examples shown here have been tested with Python 2.6. Python 2.4 -is also supported - of course the examples requiring the <tt class="docutils literal">with</tt> +is also supported - of course the examples requiring the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">with</span></tt> statement will not work there. Python 2.5 works fine, but if you run the examples in the interactive interpreter you will notice a few differences since -<tt class="docutils literal">getargspec</tt> returns an <tt class="docutils literal">ArgSpec</tt> namedtuple instead of a regular +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">getargspec</span></tt> returns an <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ArgSpec</span></tt> namedtuple instead of a regular tuple. That means that running the file -<tt class="docutils literal">documentation.py</tt> under Python 2.5 will print a few errors, but +<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">documentation.py</span></tt> under Python 2.5 will print a few errors, but they are not serious.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="licence"> -<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id16">LICENCE</a></h1> +<h1><a class="toc-backref" href="#id18">LICENCE</a></h1> <p>Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:</p> |