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BT 1 0 0 1 0 158 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (memoize_uw) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (func) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj (func) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (cache) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj ({}) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (memoize) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (kw) Tj (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# frozenset is used to ensure hashability) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (            ) Tj (key) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (frozenset) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (kw) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (iteritems) Tj (\(\)\)) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (else) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (            ) Tj (key) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj  T* (        ) Tj (cache) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (func) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (cache) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (key) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (in) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (cache) Tj (:) Tj  T* (            ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (cache) Tj ([) Tj (key) Tj (]) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (else) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (            ) Tj (cache) Tj ([) Tj (key) Tj (]) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (result) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (func) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (            ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (result) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (functools) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (update_wrapper) Tj (\() Tj (memoize) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (func) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 93.82362 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 1.801412 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Here we used the ) Tj 0 0 .501961 rg (functools.update_wrapper ) Tj 0 0 0 rg (utility, which has been added in Python 2.5 expressly to) Tj T* 0 Tw .91686 Tw (simplify the definition of decorators \(in older versions of Python you need to copy the function attributes) Tj T* 0 Tw .580814 Tw /F4 10 Tf (__name__) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (__doc__) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (__module__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (__dict__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (from the original function to the decorated function) Tj T* 0 Tw (by hand\).) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 0 0 cm  BT /F1 12 Tf 14.4 TL ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 729.0236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 2.517126 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The implementation above works in the sense that the decorator can accept functions with generic) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.233615 Tw (signatures; unfortunately this implementation does ) Tj /F5 10 Tf (not ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (define a signature-preserving decorator, since in) Tj T* 0 Tw (general ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (memoize_uw ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (returns a function with a ) Tj /F5 10 Tf (different signature ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (from the original function.) Tj T* ET
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0 0 0 rg
BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL (Consider for instance the following case:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .666667 .133333 1 rg (@memoize_uw) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (f1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (x) Tj (\):) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj (time) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (sleep) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# simulate some long computation) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (x) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 609.8236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm .26311 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Here the original function takes a single argument named ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (x) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, but the decorated function takes any number) Tj T* 0 Tw (of arguments and keyword arguments:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (from) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 0 1 rg (inspect) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (import) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (getargspec) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (getargspec) Tj (\() Tj (f1) Tj (\)) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# I am using Python 2.6+ here) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (ArgSpec) Tj (\() Tj (args) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ([],) Tj ( ) Tj (varargs) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ('args') Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (keywords) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ('kw') Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (defaults) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 508.6236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm .411235 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (This means that introspection tools such as pydoc will give wrong informations about the signature of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (f1) Tj /F1 10 Tf (.) Tj T* 0 Tw .161654 Tw (This is pretty bad: pydoc will tell you that the function accepts a generic signature ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (*args) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (**kw) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, but when) Tj T* 0 Tw (you try to call the function with more than an argument, you will get an error:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 439.4236 cm
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1 0 0 1 0 0 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
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.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f1) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj  T* (Traceback) Tj ( ) Tj (\() Tj (most) Tj ( ) Tj (recent) Tj ( ) Tj (call) Tj ( ) Tj (last) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (   ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* /F3 10 Tf .823529 .254902 .227451 rg (TypeError) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj ( ) Tj (f1) Tj (\(\)) Tj ( ) Tj (takes) Tj ( ) Tj (exactly) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (argument) Tj ( ) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (2) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (given) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 406.4236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F2 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The solution) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 364.4236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 3.313984 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The solution is to provide a generic factory of generators, which hides the complexity of making) Tj T* 0 Tw 3.362976 Tw (signature-preserving decorators from the application programmer. The ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (function in the) Tj T* 0 Tw /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (module is such a factory:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 331.2236 cm
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1 0 0 1 0 0 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
.5 w
.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
n -6 -6 468.6898 24 re B*
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (from) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 0 1 rg (decorator) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (import) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (decorator) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 275.2236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 1.716412 Tw 12 TL /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (takes two arguments, a caller function describing the functionality of the decorator and a) Tj T* 0 Tw 2.594983 Tw (function to be decorated; it returns the decorated function. The caller function must have signature) Tj T* 0 Tw .19311 Tw /F4 10 Tf (\(f,) Tj ( ) Tj (*args,) Tj ( ) Tj (**kw\) ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and it must call the original function ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (f ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (with arguments ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (args ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (kw) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, implementing) Tj T* 0 Tw (the wanted capability, i.e. memoization in this case:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 122.0236 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
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.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 122 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (_memoize) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (func) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (kw) Tj (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# frozenset is used to ensure hashability) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (        ) Tj (key) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (frozenset) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (kw) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (iteritems) Tj (\(\)\)) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (else) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (        ) Tj (key) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj  T* (    ) Tj (cache) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (func) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (cache) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# attributed added by memoize) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (key) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (in) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (cache) Tj (:) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (cache) Tj ([) Tj (key) Tj (]) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (else) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (        ) Tj (cache) Tj ([) Tj (key) Tj (]) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (result) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (func) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (result) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 102.0236 cm
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0 0 0 rg
BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL (At this point you can define your decorator as follows:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 0 0 cm  BT /F1 12 Tf 14.4 TL ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (memoize) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (f) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj (f) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (cache) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj ({}) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (decorator) Tj (\() Tj (_memoize) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (f) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 671.8236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm .12561 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The difference with respect to the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (memoize_uw ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (approach, which is based on nested functions, is that the) Tj T* 0 Tw 2.59528 Tw (decorator module forces you to lift the inner function at the outer level \() Tj /F5 10 Tf (flat is better than nested) Tj /F1 10 Tf (\).) Tj T* 0 Tw (Moreover, you are forced to pass explicitly the function you want to decorate to the caller function.) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 653.8236 cm
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0 0 0 rg
BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL (Here is a test of usage:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 512.6236 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
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.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 110 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .666667 .133333 1 rg (@memoize) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (heavy_computation) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\(\):) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj (time) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (sleep) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (2) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ("done") Tj 0 0 0 rg  T*  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (heavy_computation) Tj (\(\)) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# the first time it will take 2 seconds) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (done) Tj  T*  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (heavy_computation) Tj (\(\)) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# the second time it will be instantaneous) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (done) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 492.6236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The signature of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (heavy_computation ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (is the one you would expect:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 447.4236 cm
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1 0 0 1 0 0 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
.5 w
.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
n -6 -6 468.6898 36 re B*
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (getargspec) Tj (\() Tj (heavy_computation) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (ArgSpec) Tj (\() Tj (args) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ([],) Tj ( ) Tj (varargs) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (keywords) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (defaults) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 414.4236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F2 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (A ) Tj /F3 17.5 Tf (trace ) Tj /F2 17.5 Tf (decorator) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 384.4236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm .479398 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (As an additional example, here is how you can define a trivial ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (trace ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (decorator, which prints a message) Tj T* 0 Tw (everytime the traced function is called:) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 327.2236 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
.5 w
.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (_trace) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (f) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ("calling ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ( with args ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (, ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (") Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (%) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (\() Tj (f) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (__name__) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (kw) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 282.0236 cm
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1 0 0 1 6.6 6.6 cm
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.662745 .662745 .662745 RG
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.960784 .960784 .862745 rg
n -6 -6 468.6898 36 re B*
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (trace) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (f) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (decorator) Tj (\() Tj (_trace) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (f) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL (Here is an example of usage:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .666667 .133333 1 rg (@trace) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (f1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (x) Tj (\):) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (pass) Tj T* ET
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1 0 0 1 62.69291 184.8236 cm
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (It is immediate to verify that ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (f1 ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (works) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f1) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj  T* (calling) Tj ( ) Tj (f1) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (with) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj ( ) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,\),) Tj ( ) Tj ({}) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (getargspec) Tj (\() Tj (f1) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (ArgSpec) Tj (\() Tj (args) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ([) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ('x') Tj 0 0 0 rg (],) Tj ( ) Tj (varargs) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (keywords) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (defaults) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 86 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .666667 .133333 1 rg (@trace) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (exotic_signature) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\(\() Tj (x) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (y) Tj (\)) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (2) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)\):) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (x) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (+) Tj 0 0 0 rg (y) Tj  T*  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (getargspec) Tj (\() Tj (exotic_signature) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (ArgSpec) Tj (\() Tj (args) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ([[) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ('x') Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ('y') Tj 0 0 0 rg (]],) Tj ( ) Tj (varargs) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (keywords) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (None) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (defaults) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\(\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (2) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\),\)\)) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (exotic_signature) Tj (\(\)) Tj  T* (calling) Tj ( ) Tj (exotic_signature) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (with) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj ( ) Tj (\(\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (2) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\),\),) Tj ( ) Tj ({}) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (3) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL .84561 Tw (Notice that the support for exotic signatures has been deprecated in Python 2.6 and removed in Python) Tj T* 0 Tw (3.0.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F3 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (decorator ) Tj /F2 17.5 Tf (is a decorator) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 86 Tm .643876 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (It may be annoying to write a caller function \(like the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (_trace ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (function above\) and then a trivial wrapper) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.510888 Tw (\() Tj /F4 10 Tf (def) Tj ( ) Tj (trace\(f\):) Tj ( ) Tj (return) Tj ( ) Tj (decorator\(_trace,) Tj ( ) Tj (f\)) Tj /F1 10 Tf (\) every time. For this reason, the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator) Tj T* 0 Tw .334269 Tw /F1 10 Tf (module provides an easy shortcut to convert the caller function into a signature-preserving decorator: you) Tj T* 0 Tw 7.364269 Tw (can just call ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (with a single argument. In our example you can just write) Tj T* 0 Tw .951647 Tw /F4 10 Tf (trace) Tj ( ) Tj (=) Tj ( ) Tj (decorator\(_trace\)) Tj /F1 10 Tf (. The ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (function can also be used as a signature-changing) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.077752 Tw (decorator, just as ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (classmethod ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (staticmethod) Tj /F1 10 Tf (. However, ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (classmethod ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (staticmethod) Tj T* 0 Tw .531797 Tw /F1 10 Tf (return generic objects which are not callable, while ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (returns signature-preserving decorators,) Tj T* 0 Tw (i.e. functions of a single argument. For instance, you can write directly) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .666667 .133333 1 rg (@decorator) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (trace) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (f) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\):) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ("calling ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ( with args ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (, ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (") Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (%) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (\() Tj (f) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (func_name) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (kw) Tj (\)) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 1.806654 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (and now ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (trace ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (will be a decorator. Actually ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (trace ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (is a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (partial ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (object which can be used as a) Tj T* 0 Tw (decorator:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (trace) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (<) Tj 0 0 0 rg (function) Tj ( ) Tj (trace) Tj ( ) Tj (at) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg (x) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj (>) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 2.44686 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (If you are using an old Python version \(Python 2.4\) the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (module provides a poor man) Tj T* 0 Tw (replacement for ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (functools.partial) Tj /F1 10 Tf (.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F3 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (blocking) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 1.224692 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Sometimes one has to deal with blocking resources, such as ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (stdin) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, and sometimes it is best to have) Tj T* 0 Tw .266235 Tw (back a "busy" message than to block everything. This behavior can be implemented with a suitable family) Tj T* 0 Tw (of decorators, where the parameter is the busy message:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 1.010651 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Functions decorated with ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (blocking ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (will return a busy message if the resource is unavailable, and the) Tj T* 0 Tw (intended result if the resource is available. For instance:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm .462488 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Basically, it is as if the content of the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (with ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (block was executed in the place of the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (yield ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (expression in) Tj T* 0 Tw 2.691797 Tw (the generator function. In Python 3.2 ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (GeneratorContextManager ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (objects were enhanced with a) Tj T* 0 Tw /F4 10 Tf (__call__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (method, so that they can be used as decorators as in this example:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 110 Tm .20561 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (ba ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (decorator is basically inserting a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (with) Tj ( ) Tj (ba: ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (block inside the function. However there two issues:) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.402126 Tw (the first is that ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (GeneratorContextManager ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (objects are callable only in Python 3.2, so the previous) Tj T* 0 Tw .356905 Tw (example will break in older versions of Python; the second is that ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (GeneratorContextManager ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (objects) Tj T* 0 Tw .57561 Tw (do not preserve the signature of the decorated functions: the decorated ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (hello ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (function here will have a) Tj T* 0 Tw 3.990814 Tw (generic signature ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (hello\(*args,) Tj ( ) Tj (**kwargs\) ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (but will break when called with more than zero) Tj T* 0 Tw 7.708314 Tw (arguments. For such reasons the decorator module, starting with release 3.4, offers a) Tj T* 0 Tw .616647 Tw /F4 10 Tf (decorator.contextmanager ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (decorator that solves both problems and works even in Python 2.5. The) Tj T* 0 Tw .34998 Tw (usage is the same and factories decorated with ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator.contextmanager ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (will returns instances of) Tj T* 0 Tw 4.152823 Tw /F4 10 Tf (ContextManager) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, a subclass of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (contextlib.GeneratorContextManager ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (with a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (__call__) Tj T* 0 Tw /F1 10 Tf (method acting as a signature-preserving decorator.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F2 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (The ) Tj /F3 17.5 Tf (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F2 17.5 Tf (class) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 50 Tm 2.241412 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (You may wonder about how the functionality of the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (module is implemented. The basic) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.545868 Tw (building block is a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (class which is able to generate on the fly functions with a given) Tj T* 0 Tw .047485 Tw (name and signature from a function template passed as a string. Generally speaking, you should not need) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.164983 Tw (to resort to ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (when writing ordinary decorators, but it is handy in some circumstances.) Tj T* 0 Tw (You will see an example shortly, in the implementation of a cool decorator utility \() Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator_apply) Tj /F1 10 Tf (\).) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm .414597 Tw 12 TL /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (provides a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (.create ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (classmethod which takes as input the name, signature, and body) Tj T* 0 Tw .632927 Tw (of the function we want to generate as well as the execution environment were the function is generated) Tj T* 0 Tw (by ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (exec) Tj /F1 10 Tf (. Here is an example:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 1.995433 Tw 12 TL /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (FunctionMaker.create ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (also accepts keyword arguments and such arguments are attached to the) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.64686 Tw (resulting function. This is useful if you want to set some function attributes, for instance the docstring) Tj T* 0 Tw /F4 10 Tf (__doc__) Tj /F1 10 Tf (.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm .605318 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (For debugging/introspection purposes it may be useful to see the source code of the generated function;) Tj T* 0 Tw 2.246235 Tw (to do that, just pass the flag ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (addsource=True ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (__source__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (attribute will be added to the) Tj T* 0 Tw (generated function:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 122 Tm .870651 Tw 12 TL /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (FunctionMaker.create ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (can take as first argument a string, as in the examples before, or a function.) Tj T* 0 Tw .224985 Tw (This is the most common usage, since typically you want to decorate a pre-existing function. A framework) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.606136 Tw (author may want to use directly ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker.create ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (instead of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, since it gives you) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.36686 Tw (direct access to the body of the generated function. For instance, suppose you want to instrument the) Tj T* 0 Tw .372209 Tw /F4 10 Tf (__init__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (methods of a set of classes, by preserving their signature \(such use case is not made up; this) Tj T* 0 Tw .673828 Tw (is done in SQAlchemy and in other frameworks\). When the first argument of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker.create) Tj T* 0 Tw 3.405814 Tw /F1 10 Tf (is a function, a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (object is instantiated internally, with attributes ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (args) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (varargs) Tj /F1 10 Tf (,) Tj T* 0 Tw 5.509982 Tw /F4 10 Tf (keywords ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (and ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (defaults ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (which are the the return values of the standard library function) Tj T* 0 Tw .561318 Tw /F4 10 Tf (inspect.getargspec) Tj /F1 10 Tf (. For each argument in the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (args ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (\(which is a list of strings containing the names) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.599985 Tw (of the mandatory arguments\) an attribute ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (arg0) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (arg1) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, ..., ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (argN ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (is also generated. Finally, there is a) Tj T* 0 Tw /F4 10 Tf (signature ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (attribute, a string with the signature of the original function.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 62 Tm 4.63311 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Notice that while I do not have plans to change or remove the functionality provided in the) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.00936 Tw /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (class, I do not guarantee that it will stay unchanged forever. For instance, right now I) Tj T* 0 Tw .791318 Tw (am using the traditional string interpolation syntax for function templates, but Python 2.6 and Python 3.0) Tj T* 0 Tw .712093 Tw (provide a newer interpolation syntax and I may use the new syntax in the future. On the other hand, the) Tj T* 0 Tw .639985 Tw (functionality provided by ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (has been there from version 0.1 and it is guaranteed to stay there) Tj T* 0 Tw (forever.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F2 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Getting the source code) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 62 Tm 5.045529 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Internally ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker.create ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (uses ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (exec ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (to generate the decorated function. Therefore) Tj T* 0 Tw 2.542126 Tw /F4 10 Tf (inspect.getsource ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (will not work for decorated functions. That means that the usual '??' trick in) Tj T* 0 Tw 26.45775 Tw (IPython will give you the \(right on the spot\) message) Tj T* 0 Tw .261647 Tw /F4 10 Tf (Dynamically) Tj ( ) Tj (generated) Tj ( ) Tj (function.) Tj ( ) Tj (No) Tj ( ) Tj (source) Tj ( ) Tj (code available) Tj /F1 10 Tf (. In the past I have considered) Tj T* 0 Tw .945366 Tw (this acceptable, since ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (inspect.getsource ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (does not really work even with regular decorators. In that) Tj T* 0 Tw (case ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (inspect.getsource ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (gives you the wrapper source code which is probably not what you want:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 1.471235 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (\(see bug report ) Tj 0 0 .501961 rg (1764286 ) Tj 0 0 0 rg (for an explanation of what is happening\). Unfortunately the bug is still there,) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.541235 Tw (even in Python 2.7 and 3.1. There is however a workaround. The decorator module adds an attribute) Tj T* 0 Tw .103984 Tw /F4 10 Tf (.__wrapped__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (to the decorated function, containing a reference to the original function. The easy way to) Tj T* 0 Tw (get the source code is to call ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (inspect.getsource ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (on the undecorated function:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F2 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Dealing with third party decorators) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm .321654 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Sometimes you find on the net some cool decorator that you would like to include in your code. However,) Tj T* 0 Tw .50061 Tw (more often than not the cool decorator is not signature-preserving. Therefore you may want an easy way) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.814597 Tw (to upgrade third party decorators to signature-preserving decorators without having to rewrite them in) Tj T* 0 Tw (terms of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator) Tj /F1 10 Tf (. You can use a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (FunctionMaker ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (to implement that functionality as follows:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 86 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (decorator_apply) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (dec) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (func) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (""") Tj T* (    Decorate a function by preserving the signature even if dec) Tj T* (    is not a signature-preserving decorator.) Tj T* (    """) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (FunctionMaker) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (create) Tj (\() Tj  T* (        ) Tj (func) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ('return decorated\() Tj /F3 10 Tf .733333 .4 .533333 rg (%\(signature\)s) Tj /F4 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (\)') Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj  T* (        ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (dict) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (decorated) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg (dec) Tj (\() Tj (func) Tj (\)\),) Tj ( ) Tj (__wrapped__) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg (func) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm .698314 Tw 12 TL /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (decorator_apply ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (sets the attribute ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (.__wrapped__ ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (of the generated function to the original function,) Tj T* 0 Tw (so that you can get the right source code.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm .13104 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Notice that I am not providing this functionality in the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (module directly since I think it is best to) Tj T* 0 Tw 2.070751 Tw (rewrite the decorator rather than adding an additional level of indirection. However, practicality beats) Tj T* 0 Tw (purity, so you can add ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator_apply ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (to your toolbox and use it if you need to.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm 1.74881 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (In order to give an example of usage of ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (decorator_apply) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, I will show a pretty slick decorator that) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.276651 Tw (converts a tail-recursive function in an iterative function. I have shamelessly stolen the basic idea from) Tj T* 0 Tw 43.62829 Tw (Kay Schluehr's recipe in the Python Cookbook,) Tj T* 0 Tw 0 0 .501961 rg (http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/496691) Tj 0 0 0 rg (.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 170 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (class) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 0 1 rg (TailRecursive) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (object) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (""") Tj T* (    tail_recursive decorator based on Kay Schluehr's recipe) Tj T* (    http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/496691) Tj T* (    with improvements by me and George Sakkis.) Tj T* (    """) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T*  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (__init__) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (func) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (        ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (func) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (func) Tj  T* (        ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (firstcall) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (True) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* (        ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (CONTINUE) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (object) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\(\)) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# sentinel) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T*  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (__call__) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kwd) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (        ) Tj (CONTINUE) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (CONTINUE) Tj  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (firstcall) Tj (:) Tj  T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 158 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (            ) Tj (func) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (func) Tj  T* (            ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (firstcall) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (False) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* (            ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (try) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (                ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (while) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (True) Tj 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (                    ) Tj (result) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (func) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kwd) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (                    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (result) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (is) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (CONTINUE) Tj (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# update arguments) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (                        ) Tj (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (kwd) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (argskwd) Tj  T* (                    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (else) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# last call) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (                        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (result) Tj  T* (            ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (finally) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj  T* (                ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (firstcall) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (True) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* (        ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (else) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# return the arguments of the tail call) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (            ) Tj 0 .501961 0 rg (self) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (.) Tj 0 0 0 rg (argskwd) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (kwd) Tj  T* (            ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (CONTINUE) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 2 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL (Here is how you apply the upgraded decorator to the good old factorial:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 50 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (@tail_recursive) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (factorial) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (n) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj (acc) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (=) Tj (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\):) Tj  T* (    ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg ("The good old factorial") Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (n) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (==) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (acc) Tj  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (factorial) Tj (\() Tj (n) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (-) Tj (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (n) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (acc) Tj (\)) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (print) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (factorial) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (4) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (24) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 38 Tm .188935 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (This decorator is pretty impressive, and should give you some food for your mind ;\) Notice that there is no) Tj T* 0 Tw 1.339983 Tw (recursion limit now, and you can easily compute ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (factorial\(1001\) ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (or larger without filling the stack) Tj T* 0 Tw .909431 Tw (frame. Notice also that the decorator will not work on functions which are not tail recursive, such as the) Tj T* 0 Tw (following) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 12 TL /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (fact) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\() Tj (n) Tj (\):) Tj ( ) Tj /F6 10 Tf .25098 .501961 .501961 rg (# this is not tail-recursive) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (if) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (n) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (==) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* (    ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (n) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (fact) Tj (\() Tj (n) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (-) Tj (1) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\)) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL .541098 Tw (\(reminder: a function is tail recursive if it either returns a value without making a recursive call, or returns) Tj T* 0 Tw (directly the result of a recursive call\).) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 3.5 Tm 21 TL /F2 17.5 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Caveats and limitations) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL .474987 Tw (The first thing you should be aware of, it the fact that decorators have a performance penalty. The worse) Tj T* 0 Tw (case is shown by the following example:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm .266235 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (On my MacBook, using the ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (do_nothing ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (decorator instead of the plain function is more than three times) Tj T* 0 Tw (slower:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 1.25832 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (It should be noted that a real life function would probably do something more useful than ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (f ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (here, and) Tj T* 0 Tw .91811 Tw (therefore in real life the performance penalty could be completely negligible. As always, the only way to) Tj T* 0 Tw (know if there is a penalty in your specific use case is to measure it.) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm /F1 10 Tf 12 TL .867984 Tw (You should be aware that decorators will make your tracebacks longer and more difficult to understand.) Tj T* 0 Tw (Consider this example:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 26 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj .666667 .133333 1 rg (@trace) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (def) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj 0 0 1 rg (f) Tj 0 0 0 rg (\(\):) Tj  T* .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg (     ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj (/) Tj (0) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 14 Tm .583318 Tw 12 TL /F1 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (Calling ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (f\(\) ) Tj /F1 10 Tf (will give you a ) Tj /F4 10 Tf (ZeroDivisionError) Tj /F1 10 Tf (, but since the function is decorated the traceback will) Tj T* 0 Tw (be longer:) Tj T* ET
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BT 1 0 0 1 0 98 Tm 12 TL /F4 10 Tf .4 .4 .4 rg (>) Tj (>) Tj (>) Tj 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f) Tj (\(\)) Tj  T* (Traceback) Tj ( ) Tj (\() Tj (most) Tj ( ) Tj (recent) Tj ( ) Tj (call) Tj ( ) Tj (last) Tj (\):) Tj  T* (  ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (...) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* (     ) Tj (File) Tj ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (") Tj (<) Tj (string) Tj (>) Tj (") Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (line) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (2) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (in) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f) Tj  T* (     ) Tj (File) Tj ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (") Tj (<) Tj (doctest __main__[18]) Tj (>) Tj (") Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (line) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (4) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (in) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (trace) Tj  T* (       ) Tj /F3 10 Tf 0 .501961 0 rg (return) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f) Tj (\() Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (*) Tj 0 0 0 rg (args) Tj (,) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (**) Tj 0 0 0 rg (kw) Tj (\)) Tj  T* (     ) Tj (File) Tj ( ) Tj .729412 .129412 .129412 rg (") Tj (<) Tj (doctest __main__[47]) Tj (>) Tj (") Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj (line) Tj ( ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (3) Tj 0 0 0 rg (,) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (in) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (f) Tj  T* (       ) Tj .4 .4 .4 rg (1) Tj (/) Tj (0) Tj 0 0 0 rg  T* /F3 10 Tf .823529 .254902 .227451 rg (ZeroDivisionError) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg (:) Tj ( ) Tj (integer) Tj ( ) Tj (division) Tj ( ) Tj /F3 10 Tf .666667 .133333 1 rg (or) Tj /F4 10 Tf 0 0 0 rg ( ) Tj (modulo) Tj ( ) Tj (by) Tj ( ) Tj (zero) Tj T* ET
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